Theoretical foundations of enterprise income management. Using this approach will allow you to manage the income of the company owners by

In a market economy, income plays a major role in the system of economic indicators. The economic essence of income is one of the complex and controversial problems in modern economic theory. Moreover, some authors in their works argue that “the concept of income is perhaps the most complex and even tragic concept in economic science.”

Modern Western scientists interpret the concept of “income” as the difference between the income of commodity producers and production costs without analyzing its essence and origin.

Income is a special systematically reproduced resource of an organization, the purpose of doing business, the main source of development and growth of the organization's market value; indicator of the organization's creditworthiness and competitiveness; a guarantee of the organization’s fulfillment of its obligations to the state, a source of satisfaction of the social needs of society.

Income is an economic benefit in monetary or in-kind form, taken into account if it is possible to evaluate it to the extent that such benefit can be assessed.

An organization's income is recognized as an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets (cash, other property) and/or repayment of liabilities, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from participants (owners of property).

Income leads to an increase in the profit and capital of the owner only due to the profit remaining at the disposal of the owner and transferred to the economic entity to expand activities and solve social problems.

The activities of an economic entity are aimed at maintaining the owner’s capital and increasing it. This is achieved by breaking-even financial results and adding part of the profit received to the owner’s capital (reinvestment).

Income is the final financial result that characterizes the production and economic activities of the entire enterprise, that is, it forms the basis for the economic development of the enterprise. Income growth creates a financial basis for self-financing of the enterprise's activities, carrying out expanded reproduction. Due to it, part of the obligations to the budget, banks and other enterprises is fulfilled. Thus, income becomes the most important for assessing the production and financial activities of an enterprise. At the same time, it characterizes a complex economic category, to the definition of which there are several approaches in the scientific literature. In accordance with the economic approach, income is the increase (decrease) in the capital of owners that took place in the reporting period. Thus, income can be calculated either on the basis of the dynamics of market estimates of capital, or according to balance sheet data at the beginning and end of the reporting period. This concerns both the subjectivity of identifying the initial basis for calculation and what changes in equity capital can be considered elements of income management.

The accounting approach to determining income seems more reasonable and realistic.

In this case, the elements of income are clearly identified, i.e. types of income and expenses, and their separate accounting is maintained. In addition, the accounting approach recognizes income as profit only after it is realized, while the economic approach does not distinguish between realized and unrealized income.

A clear classification of income and expenses is the basis for a reasonable determination of the net result of operations for a certain period. In addition, classification is necessary for:

determining from what source the main part of the income and profit of the reporting period was received;

separation of production costs of products and non-production costs, including management and sales costs, as well as costs of financial activities;

separation of fixed and variable costs for the purposes of management and financial analysis.

To determine sources of income, all activities of the enterprise are divided into:

main or operating activities (production and sale of products, works and services of the enterprise);

financial activities (obtaining loans and issuing them to other enterprises; participation of the enterprise in the activities of other campaigns; operations of the enterprise in financial markets, exchange rate differences, etc.);

extraordinary items (operations that are not typical for the activities of the enterprise).

This division is very important, since it allows us to determine the share of income received both from the main activities of the enterprise and from other sources, especially from those that are not at all characteristic of the activities of a given enterprise and cannot be considered as a constant source of income. his income.

As you know, income is considered to be an increase in economic benefits during the reporting period or a decrease in liabilities that lead to an increase in capital other than contributions from owners. Income includes such items as revenue from the sale of products, goods, work, services, interest and dividends receivable, royalties, etc., as well as other income (receipts from the sale of write-off fixed assets and other assets.

Expenses are considered to be a decrease in economic benefits during the reporting period or the occurrence of obligations that lead to a decrease in capital, except for changes due to withdrawals by decision of the owners. Expenses include such items as the cost of producing sold products (goods, works, services), taking into account the costs of paying employees, depreciation, administrative and commercial expenses, as well as losses (loss from sale and other cases of write-off of fixed assets and other assets, changes in exchange rates, etc.).

The income of an organization is considered to be an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the repayment of liabilities, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from participants (owners of property).

The income of an enterprise is that part of the receipts of cash and other property that:

· arrives on a non-refundable basis;

· becomes the property of the enterprise;

· is not associated with an increase in property due to contributions from participants or owners of the enterprise;

· is included in the financial statements of the enterprise “Profit and Loss Statement” and is subject to inclusion in taxable profit (with the exception of extraordinary income and in accordance with tax accounting requirements).

Depending on the nature, conditions of receipt and areas of activity of the organization, income is divided into:

1) income from ordinary activities;

2) operating income;

The last two types of income of the organization form the group other income, which may also include extraordinary income.

Income does not include receipts from other legal entities and individuals:

· taxes and similar obligatory payments;

· under commission agreements, agency and other similar agreements in favor of the principal, principal;

· in the order of advance payment for products, goods, works, services;

· advances in payment for products, goods, works, services.

Any commercial organization builds its activities based on the prospect of sustainable profit generation on average. Since in the world of business and competition no one is immune from their own mistakes and the emergence of more skillful and successful (unfortunately) competitors, it is impossible to predict in advance with certainty what the profit will be in the future, whether the enterprise will have enough income to pay its counterparties, whether they will be satisfied owners, level of profitability, etc. That is why the degree of effectiveness of current financial management is determined not only and not so much by the significance of the income (losses) received in individual years, but by the sustainability of profit generation on average. If the company constantly has a profit (perhaps not super-large, but satisfactory on average for investors), naturally burdened with an acceptable level of risk, it becomes possible to make strategic financial decisions of a forward-looking nature, especially with regard to attracting additional sources of financing. In other words, not only the current financial condition, but also strategic decisions largely depend on the effectiveness of constant routine activities, the essence of which is generating profit. Sustainable current profit serves as an indicator of the correctness of the chosen course, the strategic goal of which is to increase the level of well-being of the owners of the enterprise.

At the first stage, it is necessary to determine the dynamics of changes over the past period in the main indicators characterizing the financial condition of the enterprise, namely:

Income of the owners of the enterprise and its components;

Profitability of production, both on average for all types of manufactured products, and for each of them.

Moreover, the duration of the calculation period must be at least 6 - 8 calculation steps. Calculation step: quarter, half year or year. If the calculation period contains less than 6 steps, then statistical processing of the parameters under study becomes ineffective and their trends are determined based on expert assessment. Implementation of recommendations obtained on the basis of 1 - 2 steps of calculation can lead to negative consequences for the company.

Analysis and statistical processing of data over the past period make it possible to assess not only the stability of the company’s current solvency, but also to recommend the optimal amount of necessary reserves: finished products and material resources.

A very important issue that can be considered at this stage is assessing the possibility of reducing the cost of manufactured products mainly by reducing its most costly components. This will allow us to prepare a plan for modernizing the technologies used at the next stage.

Thus, based on the analysis of the results obtained, an assessment can be made of the effectiveness of the company’s management, its attractiveness for business partners, and the main problems that need to be solved in the coming period can be identified.

The main task of the second stage is to prepare for the long term (5 - 10 years) the most profitable plan for financial and economic activity for the owners of the company. Such a plan can be developed using an economic and mathematical model, which is used to analyze possible development options for the company and determine the optimal investment and dividend policy. To implement a long-term development strategy, it is necessary to use a rolling planning method, which involves developing medium-term and short-term plans based on a long-term plan.

The medium-term plan (for 2-3 years) will provide the opportunity to timely carry out the activities necessary to increase the efficiency of the production of goods or the provision of services.

The action program for the company's management is a short-term plan for six months to a year, the implementation of which will allow progress towards achieving the intended long-term goals. With careful preparation of the initial data, the discrepancy between the actual results of the short-term plan and the calculated ones may not exceed 2-3%. As the forecast period increases, the error in planning financial and economic activities increases significantly due to changes in possible inflation rates and price structure. In addition, in the coming period, the company may have new opportunities, for example, due to technical progress in related areas: the emergence of more advanced equipment, the development of new materials and technologies that can reduce production costs, improve and expand the consumer qualities of the products or services provided.

The essence of the rolling planning method is that, based on the actual results of the implementation of the next short-term plan, if necessary, the medium and long-term plans are clarified, and the short-term plan is drawn up anew.

Using this approach will allow you to manage the income of the company’s owners through:

Management of nomenclature and volumes of work;

Systematic reduction of the cost of work performed;

Developing a procedure and timing for replacing low-productivity equipment and introducing new technologies;

Optimization of the amount of quickly liquid assets, reserve fund and material reserves;

Determining acceptable conditions for attracting loans and additional equity capital;

Development of the most profitable investment and dividend policy of the enterprise;

Preparation of operational and long-term production development plans;

Comparison and selection for the implementation of the most promising and profitable investment proposals and projects;

Assessing reliability and attracting new business partners, for example, manufacturers, higher quality raw materials or components.

The main income for a trading organization is income from sales, which is the sum of trade markups and trade discounts attributable to goods sold. Consequently, according to the sources of education, a distinction is made between income received from trade markups and income received from trade discounts.

The role and significance of gross income as an economic indicator are as follows: gross income is the source of profit; production and distribution costs are reimbursed from gross income; gross income serves as a source of replenishment of own working capital; At the expense of gross income, various budgetary and extra-budgetary funds are formed (a fee for the formation of local target budget housing investment funds, a fee for the republican fund for supporting producers of agricultural products, food and agrarian science, a tax for road users and a fee for financing costs associated with maintenance and repair housing stock); At the expense of gross income, enterprises pay excise taxes and thus participate in the formation of the country's budget. The gross income of an enterprise is measured in absolute and relative values. In absolute terms, gross income is characterized by an amount expressed in monetary units, in relative terms - by level. The level of gross income (Uv.d) is calculated as the ratio of the amount of gross income to gross turnover, expressed as a percentage:

where VD is the amount of gross income;

T - gross trade turnover.

where A in. d - the ratio of the level of gross income from products of own production to the level of gross income from purchased goods, %;

D p.s. n - share of work in turnover (basic),%.

The level of gross income for purchased goods can be calculated as follows:

As is known, enterprises pay targeted fees and charges from their gross income. In this regard, it is necessary to determine and evaluate the gross income remaining at the disposal of the enterprise, or net gross income. Its value can be determined as follows:

CWD = VD - CS, (4)

where NVP is net gross income, million rubles;

CA - target fees and payments.

To find the level of net gross income, its amount should be divided by gross turnover and multiplied by 100:

At h.v. d = CWD: T x 100, (5)

One of the sources of gross income of enterprises is the trade markup. Its value should cover the value of the distribution costs of enterprises. Trade markups are set as a percentage of the wholesale free selling price. The mechanism for the formation of trade markups provides for their regulation by executive authorities.

It is interesting to know that in developed foreign countries more than 20 different discounts and allowances are used. The most common of them are discounts on the number of works of the enterprise (services), which can reach 30% of the price; bonus discounts or discounts for turnover that are provided to regular partners; dealer discounts provided by manufacturers to their permanent representatives or sales intermediaries; seasonal discounts; hidden discounts in the form of free services, staff training, free samples, etc.

Enterprises independently calculate the trade markup (but not higher than the maximum amount) based on costs, established taxes and non-tax payments and profits. When determining the size of the average trade markup, it is recommended to use the following formula:

T n = IO + K + P + H + CO, (6)

where Tn is the level of trade markup, %;

IO - planned level of distribution costs, except for interest on loans, %;

N - taxes and deductions as a percentage of turnover; CO - deductions for replenishment of own working capital as a percentage of turnover;

K - interest on the loan as a percentage of turnover;

P - profitability as a percentage of turnover.

Another important element of an enterprise’s gross income is the markup on the enterprise’s work (services) and purchased goods. The size of the markups depends on the category of the enterprise, the place and time of sale of products and purchased goods. The markup on products is intended to cover the production costs of the enterprise. It is set as a percentage of the retail price. Based on the size of the markups, enterprises are divided into six categories: super-lux, luxury, highest, first, second and third. The highest level of markups is at luxury category enterprises, the lowest is at enterprises of the third markup category. The estimated markup level can be determined based on the cost and standard level of profitability:

Unats = RUi + RUr, (7)

where RU and is the estimated level of production and distribution costs (RU and = I / C x 100);

RU p - calculated level of profitability;

I - actual costs for the period preceding the planned one;

C - cost of raw materials in retail prices for the period preceding the planned one:

C = T - H, (8)

where T is trade turnover for the period preceding the planned one;

N - markup for the same period.

The estimated level of profitability is determined by the formula:

RU p = P: S x 100, (9)

where P is profit.

Profitability indicators characterize the income and efficiency of an enterprise. They measure the profitability of an enterprise from various positions and are grouped in accordance with the interests of participants in the economic process. Profitability indicators are important characteristics of the factor environment for generating enterprise income. Therefore, they are mandatory when conducting a comparative analysis and assessing the financial condition of an enterprise.

In the economic literature, several concepts of profitability are given. Thus, one of its definitions is as follows: profitability (from the German rentabel - profitable, profitable) is an indicator of the economic efficiency of production in enterprises, which comprehensively reflects the use of material, labor and monetary resources.

According to other authors, profitability is an indicator that represents the ratio of profit to the amount of production costs, monetary investments in organizing commercial operations, or the amount of company property used to organize its activities.

One way or another, profitability is the ratio of income and capital invested in creating this income. By relating profit to invested capital, profitability compares the level of profitability of an enterprise with alternative uses of capital or the return obtained by the enterprise under similar risk conditions. Riskier investments require higher returns to become profitable. Since capital always brings profit, to measure the level of profitability, profit, as a reward for risk, is compared with the amount of capital that was necessary to generate this profit. Profitability is an indicator that comprehensively characterizes the efficiency of an enterprise. With its help, you can evaluate the effectiveness of enterprise management, since obtaining high income and a sufficient level of profitability largely depends on the correctness and rationality of management decisions made. Therefore, profitability can be considered as one of the criteria for management quality. By the value of the profitability level, one can assess the long-term well-being of the enterprise, i.e. the ability of a business to earn a sufficient return on investment. For long-term creditors of investors who invest money in the equity capital of an enterprise, this indicator is a more reliable indicator than indicators of financial stability and liquidity, determined on the basis of the ratio of individual balance sheet items. By establishing a connection between the amount of profit and the amount of invested capital, the profitability indicator can be used in the process of forecasting profit. In the forecasting process, the profit expected to be received on these investments is compared with actual and expected investments. The estimate of expected profit is based on the level of profitability for previous periods, taking into account projected changes. In addition, profitability is of great importance for making decisions in the field of investment, planning, budgeting, coordinating, evaluating and monitoring the activities of an enterprise and its results.

Thus, we can conclude that profitability indicators characterize the financial results and efficiency of the enterprise. They measure the profitability of an enterprise from various positions and are systematized in accordance with the interests of participants in the economic process.

The size and dynamics of revenue and profit from sales are the most important indicators that determine the financial condition of the enterprise: the level of profitability of sales and assets, asset turnover, cash flow, and the investment attractiveness of the enterprise depend on them.

The amount of sales revenue functionally depends on two groups of factors: the first group is the natural sales volume and the price per unit of each type of product; the second group is the total cost of products sold and profit from sales.

To consider individual aspects of revenue and profit management, one of the two named groups of factors that form sales revenue acquires specific significance.

If an enterprise is faced with the task of achieving a certain value of sales revenue, regardless of the financial result obtained, the first group of factors is used. Of course, the financial result should not have a negative sign. In cases where it is necessary to ensure a certain profit from sales, the second group of factors is of practical importance.

However, in reality, as a rule, the problems of obtaining both the necessary revenue and the necessary profit from sales are simultaneously solved, therefore both groups of factors are involved in the calculations, especially since they are interdependent.

To resolve any issues related to managing revenue and profit from sales, it is important to correctly determine the nature of the costs of the products sold. We are talking about dividing all costs into fixed and variable, as well as direct and indirect.

However, it is no coincidence that variable and fixed costs are more accurately called semi-variable and semi-fixed. The convention is that some types of costs, which are traditionally considered fixed, in certain situations can behave as variable, and vice versa.

The division of costs into direct and indirect is carried out on the basis of the possibility of attributing one or another type of cost to a certain type of product, without using conventional methods of cost distribution. Costs incurred for the production and sales of only one type of product are direct, all others are indirect. As a rule, direct costs are mostly variable, but some types of variable costs may be indirect (for example, fuel and electricity costs for technological needs in a room where several types of products are produced, etc.).

Only direct variable costs relate directly to this type of product; all other costs are distributed conditionally across types of products. This means that when choosing one or another distribution characteristic, the total cost of a given type of product may change. This circumstance is very important for establishing the limits of possible price maneuvering for certain types of products. For the entire enterprise, sales revenue minus direct variable costs represents the contribution margin. In other words, contribution margin is the sum of fixed indirect costs and sales profits that must be included in sales revenue. In prices for individual types of products, the corresponding parts of the marginal profit are included depending on the state of demand for each type of product. The financial feasibility of selling a product is determined by only one condition: its cost at sales prices must be higher than direct variable costs.

Revenue represents the totality of cash receipts for a certain period from the results of an enterprise’s activities, and is the main source of the formation of its own financial resources. At the same time, the activity of the enterprise can be characterized in several areas:

1. revenue from core activities coming from the sale of products (work performed, services provided);

2. revenue from investment activities, expressed in the form of financial results from the sale of non-current assets, sale of securities;

3. revenue from financial activities, including the result of the placement of bonds and shares of the enterprise among investors.

As is customary in countries with a market economic system, total revenue consists of revenue in these three areas. However, the main importance in it is given to revenue from the main activity, which determines the entire meaning of the enterprise’s existence.

For the purpose of accounting, the organization’s income, depending on its nature, conditions of receipt and areas of activity, is divided into: income from ordinary activities; operating income; non-operating income.

There are two methods for reflecting revenue from sales of products:

For the shipment of goods (performance of work, provision of services) and presentation of settlement documents to the counterparty. This method is called the accrual method.

As payment is made, i.e. based on the actual receipt of funds into the company’s cash accounts. This is the cash method of recording revenue (CJSC EUR-MED Dentaldepo uses this method).

There is a significant difference between these methods.

The moment of sale in the first case and, therefore, the generation of revenue is considered to be the date of shipment, i.e. The receipt of funds by the enterprise for shipped products is not a factor in determining revenue. This method is based on the legal principle of transfer of ownership of goods.

Despite the fact that the law allows the use of both methods of accounting for revenue, depending on the enterprise’s own choice, using the first method in an unstable economy can lead to great difficulties, because if money is not received from the payer on time, the enterprise may have serious financial problems associated with the inability to pay taxes on time, failure of settlements with other enterprises, the emergence of a chain of its own non-payments, etc. A way out of this situation may be the formation of reserves for doubtful debts, determined on the basis of an analysis of the composition, structure, size and dynamics of non-payments for the reporting period. The reserve for doubtful debts is an additional source of financing current liabilities. This method of revenue accounting is used in developed market countries, where the presence of universal stock and money markets largely insures commodity producers against non-payments and minimizes financial risk.

Based on the above, in our country it is more expedient to use the cash method, because in this case, for the calculation of the enterprise with the budget and extra-budgetary funds, there is a real monetary base received at the time of receipt of funds to the enterprise's current account from payers.

The cash method - determining revenue based on the actual receipt of funds into the cash accounts of an enterprise - small enterprises have the right to use (Standard recommendations for organizing accounting for small businesses, approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated December 21, 1998 No. 68N). The moment of generation of revenue for tax purposes is the date of receipt of funds into the accounts of the enterprise. This accounting procedure allows for timely settlements with the budget and extra-budgetary funds, since there is a real monetary source for accrued taxes and payments. When making advance payments for shipped products, the total amount of funds does not coincide with the actual sales, since the money was received on the basis of prepayment, and the products may not only not be shipped, but not even produced.

Product cost is the most important general indicator, representing the result of production activities.

Cost is the total cost of living and materialized labor. This indicator is necessary from a management point of view, not as an end in itself, but as a means of profit management. The relationship between profit and cost is direct, resulting from the algorithm:

Profit = Revenue (excluding VAT and excise taxes) – full cost of production

Therefore, on the one hand, profit depends on factors: sales volume and price of finished products, and on the other hand, on the costs of producing these products.

The production cost management system assumes:

Rationing and planning of costs in general, by type of cost and product, by cost and responsibility centers;

Production cost accounting;

Control of cost deviations;

Analysis of production costs - operational, current (annual), long-term;

Cost management and decision making.

Production cost management solves numerous problems: calculating standards, streamlining the regulatory framework, organizing accounting for changes in standards, developing calculations, accounting for costs by centers of origin, distributing costs among responsibility centers, analyzing the implementation of planned estimates, identifying savings reserves, etc. In this sense production cost management is a multi-purpose system that requires the participation and interaction of all production units and services of the enterprise.

Effectively managing costs means, first of all, control, that is, promptly identifying the fact of deviation, its causes and culprits, and giving them an objective assessment. Complete and timely control over cost deviations facilitates the prompt adoption of management decisions.

The principle of variance management means that actual performance may not always meet the required standards and therefore variances will occur. But not every case of deviation should be the object of study, but only those that exceed the permissible size of deviations. Therefore, cost management by deviations involves establishing acceptable and unacceptable deviations. The object of decision-making should be deviations that go beyond acceptable limits.

The experience of enterprises shows that organizing the accounting of deviations from norms using a computer significantly expands the possibilities of financial control and strengthens the economic regime.

To characterize production costs, the following indicators are used:

1) production costs according to the estimate, characterizing the cost of the entire volume of work;

2) the full cost of commercial products, works and services;

3) production cost of marketable products;

4) cost of goods sold (full and production);

5) cost per unit of production, order, unit, part;

6) the cost of comparable commercial products;

7) costs per one ruble of products, works and services;

8) cost by cost centers and responsibility centers.

In the product cost management system in organizations, various types of product cost calculations are used. Based on the time of compilation, they are divided into preliminary and subsequent.

Preliminary ones include planned, estimated and normative calculations compiled before the processes of product formation, performance of work and provision of services.

Deviations in the course of events from those provided for in the plan are determined both internal (subjective) and external (objective) factors of financial losses.

Internal factors include:

· inflated expectations when planning sales volumes for the selected range of products and services;

· sharp violations of the rational relationship between accounts payable and receivable (weak organization of mutual settlements for the supply and sale of products and services);

· unplanned and unjustified diversion of funds from circulation (low budget discipline).

External factors include:

· unexpected appearance of players in the occupied market segments, breaking the balance of the market with their offers;

· changes in transportation tariffs, rental payments, etc.;

· fluctuations in exchange rates;

· violation of contractual obligations by partners - suppliers of products and services, lenders, credit clients;

· changes in the domestic and foreign political situation, international conflicts, natural disasters, etc.

Speaking about the nature and means of countering the effects of external and internal factors of financial losses, we can draw the following conclusions:

· internal factors of financial losses are generated by specific and understandable technological deficiencies in the enterprise’s financial management system and are compensated exclusively by their targeted elimination;

· external factors of financial losses are generated by the “economic environment” and can only partially be compensated by making appropriate financial decisions in response to negative changes in the external environment or in anticipation of such.

Cost planning is the determination of costs based on the expected operating conditions of the enterprise in the planning period.

Planning direction:

1) Drawing up cost estimates.

2) Cost calculation – This is a calculation of costs per unit of a costing object.

Based on the grouping of costs, analytical cost accounting is built, and planned and actual cost estimates of individual types of products are compiled.

Cost calculation methods:

1) The method of calculating the full cost allows you to get an idea of all the costs that an organization incurs in the formation and sale of a unit of product. However, the traditional method does not take into account one important circumstance: the change in the cost of a unit of product from the volume of product sales.

2) The method of calculating the reduced cost of production or the “direct costing” method or the marginal income method.

The “direct costing” method is a method for calculating the reduced cost of production, in which only variable costs are included in the cost of production, and fixed costs are completely transferred to sales. Consequently, a clear distinction is made between production costs into variable and fixed costs. Direct costing is used in production cost accounting to make operational decisions on the formation of variable and fixed costs, as well as to conduct an economic analysis of product costs.

The name “direct costing” (translated means accounting for direct costs) is preferable: it is historically determined, reflects the essence of the system, is laconic, and international.

Direct costing involves the calculation of only variable costs; this method is based on the calculation of average variable costs and average coverage. And fixed expenses are collected in a separate account and, at specified intervals, are written off directly to the debit of the financial results account.

When accounting using the direct costing method, there are at least two effective financial indicators: contribution margin and profit.

In a market economy, any enterprise needs to carry out its activities with minimal losses. To do this, the enterprise must be efficient, competitive, and provide consumers with quality goods or services.

Proper enterprise management also plays an important role. The implementation of correct foreign and domestic policies contributes to the development of the enterprise and the emergence of new markets for goods and services.

The main result of the effective operation of a commercial enterprise is the receipt of constantly growing profits. This is facilitated by the excess of income over expenses.

The main goal of any commercial organization is to increase income in any legal way.

Income represents economic benefits received due to the receipt of investments and assets, as well as a reduction in expenses for credit and other obligations of the organization. Income characterizes the total amount of funds received by an enterprise for a certain period.

Not all funds received by an enterprise can be considered income. These do not include advance payments for services not yet performed, deposits and collateral, that is, those funds that may be at the disposal of the company, but in fact they do not belong to the company.

there is reliable confirmation of the organization’s right to receive revenue arising from a specific agreement;
the amount of profit can be accurately determined;
there are guarantees that at the end of a specific operation there will be an increase in the economic benefits of the enterprise, and there is also no uncertainty about its receipt;
the goods are transferred to the buyer, the result of the services provided is accepted by the customer;
expenses that have already or will be incurred in connection with the provision of services or provision of work are determined.

If all of the above conditions are not met, income cannot be recognized as such.

All income available to an enterprise can be divided into two groups: income from ordinary activities and other income.

Income from ordinary activities represents revenue received from the sale of one's own goods or products, as well as funds received for services rendered and work performed. The enterprise receives other income from the implementation of non-core activities. The company can carry out any type of business activity, complying with the law.

Apart from income, expenses are a very significant and important element. In any type of activity, enterprises incur costs to one degree or another. The amount of expenses in an enterprise is determined by many factors: geographical location, demand, competition, as well as the presence of credit and other monetary or property obligations, and the cost of the production process.

A decrease in the economic benefit of an enterprise, which was formed as a result of the disposal of cash, as well as other property, is an expense. Also, the organization's expenses mean the occurrence of various types of obligations, as a result of which the company's capital decreases.

Funds that have been withdrawn from the company's capital can be recognized as expenses if the amount of the expenses can be determined, the expense is carried out in accordance with a specific agreement, and as a result, there is reliable information that the capital will be reduced as a result of a specific transaction . The combination of all these conditions simultaneously allows us to consider a decrease in the economic benefits of an organization as losses.

But there may be expenses of the organization that do not meet all the specified conditions. Their accounting is also necessary. In this case, such expenses are not recognized as expenses in accounting, but are accounted for as receivables.

Financial expenses of an enterprise can be divided into three groups:

related to profit-making;
not related to profit-making;
forced.

When accounting for expenses, it is very important to assign them to a specific accounting period, otherwise the expenses will not be recognized. Expenses can be recognized as such only in the specific reporting period in which they were incurred. The time of actual payment of funds does not matter in this case.

Mandatory (basic) expenses of any company include:

material costs;
labor costs;
contributions for social needs;
depreciation;
other costs.

When carrying out specific activities, an enterprise must take into account the demand in the services and labor market. The activity will be very costly if the services provided are not in demand, and there is no demand for the goods already produced. Therefore, when carrying out this or that activity, company managers must take into account many factors so that their activities bring more profit and expenses do not exceed losses. Otherwise, the organization will face bankruptcy and be declared insolvent.

The ratio of income and expenses at an enterprise is a fairly reliable indicator of the effectiveness of its activities. The goal of any organization is to obtain as much net profit as possible at the lowest cost. Therefore, managing income and expenses is very important in the activities of any company.

There is a mechanism for managing the income and expenses of the enterprise. This is a rather complex process that allows you to manage income and expenses within one enterprise.

Such a mechanism, ideally, ensures the stability and regularity of cash receipts from various types of activities carried out by the enterprise.

When implementing the process of managing income and expenses, it is necessary to develop and implement various management solutions that will help increase profits and reduce costs.

The process of managing income and expenses in an enterprise can be divided into two components: expense management and income management.

An effective mechanism for managing income and expenses allows you to fully realize goals and objectives.

Such management is carried out using income management methods, which include the tariff plan method, the price optimization method, and quotas.

Revenue management methods are an optimized model based on forecasting demand in the service market.

Revenue management is an economic technique aimed at determining the most profitable pricing policy to optimize an organization's income based on determining demand behavior.

The revenue management method maximizes two sources of revenue: volume and unit price of goods or services produced. Price optimization is the basis of the revenue management method - changing prices depending on demand.

The tariff plan method, compared to the high-low price method, is a more advanced revenue management mechanism.

In addition to these techniques, revenue management methods also include group quotas and group optimization.

Cost management in combination with price and sales volume control allows you to achieve greater results than price and sales volume management with simple cost control. And in conditions of limited demand or a highly competitive market, the issue of cost management becomes vital.

Almost all business managers use some kind of special cost management system. Few people have an idea about the elements and effectiveness of this system. As a rule, a cost management system in an enterprise is understood as total control of all expenses and their maximum limitation.

Managing specific costs is a very difficult process, since it is difficult to calculate all the consequences of changes. It is more effective when the object of control is a complex system. In such a system, they try to take into account all the relationships determined by the specifics of the company’s activities. The correct formulation of the goal affects the rules of operation of the cost management system and the composition of its elements.

The enterprise is faced with the problems of linking the costs incurred to a specific service, hidden costs; transferring investment costs to products.

In order to incur fewer costs associated with the provision of specific services or the production of specific goods, it is necessary to develop business plans for possible additional activities of the enterprise.

The next stage of the cost management process is associated with determining the structure and mix of costs, taking into account limited financial capabilities. The use of sound approaches to standardization and scientific organization of labor is an effective solution in such a situation.

The last stage of cost management is to select and assign employees responsible for costs. The solution to this problem lies in the control of key points of the production business process. Skillful identification of cost centers and the appointment of specially authorized persons with sufficient knowledge and practical skills will make it possible to truly evaluate the work of specific employees and departments.

The traditional control system is ineffective.
This system is based on indicators of cost volumes and consists of rewarding employees when they achieve specified values. But in case of deviation from the established volumes, workers are fined, which leads to the fact that instead of producing the required quantity of products at the optimal level of costs and flexible response to market needs, departments try to meet the established financial limits at any cost.

Careful consideration of the issue of personnel participation in the distribution of the results obtained from cost optimization is extremely rare. Therefore, having implemented such a cost management system, the manager after some time is faced with the fact that without his personal participation not a single issue is resolved, which can negatively affect the activities of the enterprise.

Difficulties in the process of managing income and expenses can arise at any time during the organization’s activities.

At the initial stages of its existence, the organization does not yet have an established sales market, regular consumers, competitiveness and image status. Therefore, it is very important in the first stages to correctly determine the purpose of the organization’s activities and to take a responsible attitude towards the goods and services produced.

Forecasting is very important. It allows companies to see how much profit and what expenses can be calculated when carrying out a particular activity.

If the company has already taken a confident position in the market for services and goods, then you should not be negligent about financial management in the organization. To increase the organization's income, expenses should be incurred on modernization, retraining of personnel, and opening new branches.

It is not difficult to notice that at the present stage of economic development, many enterprises operate inefficiently. In some cases, the organizers deliberately bring the company to a state of bankruptcy, in others the company is declared insolvent due to the ineffective policies of the enterprise and inept business management. Managing the income and expenses of an enterprise also plays an important role in the viability of the organization, so it is very important to properly control income and expenses, competently manage income and skillfully reduce expenses.

Indicators of income and expenses of an enterprise show the degree of its reliability, financial stability and well-being. The basis for the effectiveness of a company’s financial and economic activities is the process of managing income and expenses.

Bibliography

Iozaitis V.S., Lepin V.V. Budget of income and expenses and methods of managing its implementation // Management accounting and finance. 2006. No. 3
Mirosedi S.A., Panichkina V.A. Management of enterprise income and expenses through identification of losses // Economics. Control. Right. 2012. No. 4-1 (28)
Semenikhin A.I. Income and production costs: an innovative approach // Problems of forecasting. 2002. No. 6.

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The goal of any commercial enterprise is to make a profit. The basis of profit is the difference between income and expenses, i.e. part of the revenue minus costs: material, monetary, labor, costs of production and sales of products. Therefore, the important task of each enterprise is to obtain the highest income at the lowest cost, which is achieved by saving money and increasing the efficiency of their use.

In order for an enterprise to function and develop effectively, it first of all needs stability in cash revenue, sufficient to pay suppliers, creditors, its employees, local authorities, and the state. After settlements and fulfillment of obligations, profit is also needed. At the same time, the results of entrepreneurial activity are largely determined by the choice of the composition and structure of expenses incurred. Here, not only the total amount of costs is important, but also the relationship between fixed and variable costs that determine the rate of capital turnover.

Income and expenses have long been the subject of study by many economists. A great contribution to the development of theoretical and practical aspects of profit was made by Kovalev V.V., Blank I.A., Yatsyuk N.A., Chernov V.I., Shamkhalov F.R. and others. However, these two economic categories still remain among the most difficult to study.

Income and expense management is related to and based on accounting and management accounting in an enterprise. Accounting, that is, a system of interrelated indicators reflecting the activities of an organization in value (monetary) terms, exists, of course, not for itself and not for the tax inspectorate. Its final expression should be the process of extracting information useful for management through analysis and synthesis. Further, this information will form the basis for management accounting, which ensures further planning, control and management of the organization’s activities. The object of management accounting is the costs (current and capital) of the enterprise and its individual structural divisions, responsibility centers; results of economic activities, both of the entire enterprise and of individual responsibility centers; internal pricing, budgeting and internal reporting. To make optimal and rational management decisions, it is necessary to know about the composition of the enterprise’s costs and understand information about production costs and income.

Both theory and practice convince us that it is impossible to achieve success in the market without effective and targeted management of the income and expenses of an enterprise. The biggest mistake of many Russian entrepreneurs is their underestimation of accounting and management of income and expense flows in the enterprise.

The process of managing income and expenses becomes especially relevant in the context of the developing financial and economic crisis in Russia.

In modern conditions of intense competition, managing the income and expenses of an organization, managing the process of obtaining them and the financial result is the most important task for any organization. After all, by studying the sources of income and the structure of expenses, it is possible to develop a scientific approach to solving many problems, for example, achieving final results at the lowest cost.

Taking into account the above, we can note the relevance and importance of considering the chosen topic of work.

The purpose of the thesis is to study the process of managing income and expenses of an enterprise.

The objectives of the study are:

Consider the essence and concept of the organization’s income and expenses, their classification and the procedure for recording them in accounting;

Highlight the tools, principles and methods of managing an organization's income and expenses, emphasizing the role of budgeting as the basis for managing income and expenses;

Conduct an analysis of income and expense management using the example of an enterprise.

The subject of the study is the income and expenses of the enterprise.

The object of the study is the limited liability company "Intellect-Resource".

The work used general research methods - a systematic approach, comparative, economic analysis, statistical groupings, as well as selective statistical surveys.

The thesis consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references and applications.

The information basis for writing the work is legislative and regulatory documents on the formation of costs and financial results, taxation of profits and income of enterprises; works of domestic and foreign economists, periodical materials on the topic of this work; materials and reporting of the enterprise under study.

First of all, it is necessary to evaluate the results of the asset and liability sections of the balance sheet. As is known, the assets of the balance sheet show in generalized monetary terms the state and allocation of the organization’s funds, while the liabilities show the sources of education or the intended purpose of these funds.

By analyzing the data from the articles of the analytical balance sheet, you need to determine what changes have occurred in the composition of funds and sources, the main groups of these funds, and also obtain answers to the following questions:

in what direction and to what extent individual balance sheet items have changed, what assessment these changes deserve;

is it necessary to conduct a more in-depth analysis and for what period;

what bottlenecks exist in the activities of the enterprise, in its provision of financial resources, in their use.

Having established the final result of changes in the analytical balance, it is necessary to determine in which sections and articles the greatest changes occurred. Thus, the decrease in the foreign exchange balance is assessed negatively. The growth of current assets from a financial point of view indicates increased mobility of property. The growth rates of accounts payable and receivable must be in balance. In addition, the growth rate of accounts payable should be lower than the growth rate of accounts receivable. You should also pay attention to the presence of “sick” balance sheet items (presence of losses).

The indicator “Availability of own working capital” is calculated and is determined by the difference in the results of the first sections of liabilities and assets of the analytical balance sheet plus long-term liabilities. By this indicator one can judge the amount of working capital available at the long-term disposal of the enterprise, in contrast to short-term liabilities that can be claimed from the enterprise at any time.

The system of criteria for assessing the satisfactory structure of the balance sheet of an economic entity is determined by Federal Law No. 6-FZ dated January 8, 1998 “On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)”. According to this Law, the analysis and assessment of the structure of the balance sheet of enterprises is carried out on the basis of the following ratios: current liquidity, provision of own funds, restoration (loss) of solvency.

Of undoubted interest is the coefficient of maneuverability of own working capital, which is calculated as the ratio of own working capital to the sum of own capital and long-term liabilities. The higher the value of this coefficient, the higher the possibility of financial maneuver for the enterprise. The financial condition of business entities is analyzed according to financial statements with the calculation of a number of coefficients. Thus, the analysis of solvency is carried out according to the data of analytical tables that form financial ratios of liquidity and financial stability.

Liquidity determines the ability or inability of an enterprise to pay off its short-term obligations. The solvency of an enterprise is broader than the concept of liquidity and, along with it, includes the concept of financial stability. An enterprise can have a liquid balance sheet structure and at the same time be financially unstable. In practice, such examples occur quite often, so the solvency of an enterprise must be determined based on the values of both balance sheet liquidity and financial stability ratios. Liquidity ratios determine the ability of an enterprise to pay its short-term obligations.

As a rule, the most general indicator of liquidity is defined as the ratio of the mobile (working) capital of an enterprise to short-term liabilities or current assets to current liabilities. However, not all components of working capital have the same liquidity, i.e. possibility of conversion into cash. Cash has the greatest liquidity. Since they do not need to turn into themselves, they are said to have absolute liquidity. At the same time, for example, costs in work in progress have incomparably less liquidity, since in order to convert them into cash, a certain period must pass in the form of a technological cycle of production, its sale and the receipt of funds in the accounts of the enterprise.

Each part of the enterprise’s working capital, having its own liquidity, when related to the amount of short-term liabilities, shows what share of the enterprise’s short-term liabilities this part will “cover” (repay) if it is converted into money. Such ratios are called liquidity ratios.

The following liquidity indicators are distinguished (Appendix 2):

overall coverage ratio;

current liquidity;

absolute liquidity;

urgent liquidity;

liquidity of funds in circulation;

liquidity upon mobilization

The stock of sources of equity capital represents the stock of financial stability of the enterprise, provided that its equity capital exceeds its borrowed capital. The financial stability of an economic entity is assessed by the ratio of equity and borrowed capital.
Financial stability ratios are also called capital structure indicators or coverage indicators. These include (Appendix 3) - level of equity capital;

debt/equity ratio;

provision of non-current assets with own capital;

ratio of working and non-working capital;

level of net working capital;

level of invested capital;

level of operating capital;

indicators that determine the probability of bankruptcy.

The assessment of the possibility of restoration (loss) of solvency is carried out on the basis of an indicator characterizing the presence of a real opportunity for an enterprise to restore (or lose) its solvency within a certain period. This is the so-called coefficient of restoration (loss) of solvency (CR), which is defined as the ratio of the calculated current liquidity ratio to its established value:

Short circuit in = (K1 f +6/T x (K1 f -K1 n))/K1 norms, where

K1 f - the actual value of the current liquidity ratio K1 at the end of the reporting period (OP);

K1 n - the value of the current liquidity ratio at the beginning of the OP;

K1 norms - standard value of the current liquidity ratio (K1norm m = 2);

6 – period of restoration of solvency, months;

T – reporting period, months.

A CPV value exceeding 1 indicates the real possibility of the enterprise to restore its solvency; a value less than 1 means that the enterprise does not have a real opportunity to restore solvency in the near future.

The coefficient of loss of solvency is determined similarly to the coefficient of restoration of solvency, with the only difference being that the period of loss of solvency is 3 months. A KZ value exceeding 1 indicates the real possibility of the enterprise not to lose its solvency; a value less than 1 means that in the near future there is a real danger of losing solvency.

Analysis of an enterprise's business activity indicators allows us to identify how effectively the enterprise uses its funds. Indicators characterizing business activity include turnover and profitability ratios.

Turnover ratios are of great importance for assessing the financial condition of an enterprise, since the speed of capital turnover (the speed at which it is converted into cash) has a direct impact on the solvency of the enterprise. In addition, an increase in the rate of capital turnover reflects an increase in the technical potential of the enterprise.

The profitability of an enterprise is determined by the amount of profit it receives. To analyze profitability, two groups of indicators are calculated: return on capital and return on activity.
Return on equity measures reflect how effectively a company uses its capital to generate profits.
Indicators of profitability of activities are calculated based on data from the Profit and Loss Statement and allow one to assess the profitability of all areas of the enterprise's activities.

So, to objectively assess the financial position of an enterprise, it is necessary to move from individual accounting data to certain value relationships of the main factors - financial indicators or ratios. The calculation and interpretation of their values is the function of an accountant-analyst who is able to navigate the economics of an enterprise, identify its “sore spots” based on financial and accounting data, and develop adequate measures for regulating intervention.

Various aspects of the production, sales, supply and financial activities of an economic entity receive a complete monetary assessment in the system of financial performance indicators. They are summarized in Form No. 2 “Profit and Loss Statement”.

The final financial result of the activity of an economic entity (balance sheet profit or loss) is the algebraic sum of the result (profit or loss) from the sale of commercial products (work, services), the result (profit or loss) from financial activities, income and expenses from other non-operating operations:

P b = ± P r ± P f ± P in, where

P b – balance sheet profit or loss (profit or loss of OP),

P – result from the sale of commercial products (works, services),

P – result from financial activities,

P in – the result of other non-operating operations.

Proceeds from the sale of products indicate the completion of the production cycle of an economic entity, the return of the funds of the economic entity advanced for production into cash and the beginning of a new round in the turnover of funds. After deducting the costs of producing sold products from the revenue from sales of products, the net result (profit or loss) from sales is obtained.

Financial performance indicators characterize the absolute efficiency of the enterprise's management. Along with the absolute assessment, the relative efficiency of management is also determined. The ratio of balance sheet profit to the average value of the enterprise's property, capital (fixed and working capital) gives the overall profitability. Return on sales is defined as the ratio of profit from product sales to revenue from product sales. Many other profitability indicators are also calculated.

Profit is the most important indicator of the efficiency of an enterprise. Profit analysis should cover both factors of its formation and distribution. The following areas of research are important:

dynamics of profit indicators, validity of factual data on education and distribution of profit;

identifying and measuring the influence of various factors on profit;

assessment of possible reserves for further profit growth based on optimization of production volumes and costs, etc.

Recently, the method of profit analysis, which is based on dividing production costs into fixed and variable, as well as marginal analysis, has attracted great interest. This technique is widely used in countries with developed market economies, and is called the “direct costing” system. With its help, it is possible to study the dependence of profit on a small range of the most important factors and, on this basis, manage the process of forming its value. In contrast to the profit analysis methodology used in Russian enterprises, the direct costing system makes it possible to more fully take into account the influence of individual factors.

This system is based on the idea of the unconditionality and inevitability of overhead costs incurred in the planning period, which determines the relationship to them as fixed, conditionally constant costs of the period. Consequently, the distribution of indirect costs for production is not carried out, and indirect costs are periodically written off to the financial result. Calculating the partial cost of production and conducting an analysis of direct costs makes it possible to obtain additional tools for making management decisions in the field of break-even production and pricing.

When analyzing profits of domestic enterprises, the following model is mainly used:

P = V(C - C),

where P is the amount of profit,

V - quantity (weight) of products sold,

P is the selling price of a unit of production,

C is the cost per unit of production.

With this formulation of the problem, it is assumed that all these factors (P, V, C and C) change independently of each other. Profit is directly proportional to sales volume if profitable products are sold. If the product is unprofitable, then profit is inversely proportional to sales volume. However, the relationship between the volume of production (sales) of products and its cost is not taken into account. With an increase in production (sales) volume, the cost per unit of production decreases, since usually only the amount of variable costs (raw materials, materials, piecework wages of workers, etc.) increases, and the amount of fixed costs (rent of premises, depreciation, managerial salaries) personnel, etc.), as a rule, remains unchanged. When production declines, the cost of products increases because there are more fixed costs per unit of production.

The concept of financial control should include the following blocks:

the role and importance of financial control;

models and methods of financial control, economics and statistics;

interests of various parties in financial control;

regulation of financial control;

the relationship of financial control with other disciplines.

Assessing the reliability of reporting is one of the main tasks of financial control. A systematic approach to developing the concept of financial control involves a preliminary consideration of a more general system with which financial control is directly related and interacts. Such systems are described in sufficient detail in relation to auditing. In particular, the information link included in them, which provides the information necessary for making various management decisions, consists of five blocks: primary accounting, accounting, reliability assessment (AR), analysis and decision support.

In relation to financial control, such systems are characterized by a similar structure and functioning, but the OD block here covers not only audit, but also municipal, internal and public financial control.

The OD block reflects the main field of activity of financial control, although the latter to some extent also covers the second block (control functions of accounting); To some extent, control functions also occur in other types of accounting. How the OD function of various types of reporting should be implemented in different organizations is one of the main problems of financial control. For private sector enterprises, the OD block (assessing the reliability of management reporting) is naturally implemented through internal control, or more precisely, through internal audit.

The division of control into internal and external is carried out in relation to the organization being audited and usually does not cause difficulties. For example, control by the holding's management is external to the subsidiary, but internal when the holding is audited by an independent audit company. External and internal financial control complement each other, while at the same time differing significantly, and the activities of external controllers are in many ways similar to the activities of internal ones, since both the source information and the methods of its verification and analysis are identical. The higher the quality of internal control, the lower the costs of external control.

The ODBO block (assessment of the reliability of financial statements) is usually implemented through internal control and external audit (the latter may be absent if the audit is not mandatory). Block ONE (assessing the reliability of tax reporting) includes internal control, external audit and control by tax authorities, but while the first two types of control may often not exist, the third is always present in relation to tax reporting.

After assessing the reliability, management, accounting or tax reporting is generally analyzed and then used to support decision-making (for example, by working through several possible scenarios for the development of the economic system). Of course, in many cases (primarily this applies to small businesses), the OD, analysis and decision support blocks may be missing (if a private enterprise is not subject to mandatory audit, then decisions are usually made on the basis of financial statements that have not been verified its reliability). Yet the main related services for financial control specialists are concentrated in the analysis and decision support blocks. In the analysis of reporting, the positions of internal audit, audit organizations, state financial committees and tax authorities are strong. The positions of consulting firms and system integrators (so-called IT companies) may be stronger in methodological terms, but, as a rule, weaker in information terms.

For financial control, as an infrastructure sector of the economy, the problem also arises of constructing a system of indicators characterizing its economic state, collecting the initial data necessary for their calculation and analyzing the results of calculating these indicators. The creation of an economics of financial control should begin with the development of a system of indicators that can, firstly, sufficiently fully characterize the state of the sector and the dynamics of its development, secondly, facilitate the solution of specific pressing problems and, thirdly, ensure a more or less simple and reliable receipt such indicators. Therefore, it is clear that such indicators should include the average annual number of employees, annual revenue and similar indicators of financial control (internal control and State Financial Control, unlike audit, do not use the concept of “revenue”), the volume of services (direct and related), costs , availability and qualifications of specialists, performance indicators, etc.

Financial control is closely related to other sciences and disciplines, primarily, of course, accounting. Technological closeness to accounting is due to the fact that financial control checks the accuracy of accounting statements (or tax statements that are clearly related to them).

2.2. Basic principles of income and expense management

The following important principles for managing income and expenses can be identified:

1. The principle of completeness. To manage an enterprise, all income and expenses must be taken into account.

2. The principle of reliability. All income and expenses must be documented.

3. The principle of self-sufficiency. The enterprise's income must exceed its expenses.

4. The principle of interest in the results of activities. The management of the enterprise must be interested and aimed at making a profit.

5. The principle of timeliness. Income and expenses must be taken into account both as they accrue (to compare income and expenses) and as they are actually incurred (to compare cash flows).

6. The principle of comparability. Income and expenses must be accounted for, analyzed and controlled in a single monetary assessment.

7. The principle of ensuring the financial stability of a commercial organization involves, among other things, the use of various mechanisms for protecting against business risks (insurance, hedging, creation of financial reserves).

Every manager from time to time compares the performance of his own enterprise with the performance of competing companies. One of the criteria for such an assessment is the profitability of the business - the ratio of profits and costs. But is it possible to consider these indicators separately, because, as is known from theory, profit directly depends on expenses? And if the goal is to achieve a certain amount of income, then at first glance it does not matter at what cost this task will be completed.

Sometimes an enterprise deliberately reduces profits, for example, at the first stage of market development, or when introducing new types of products, or to maintain sales volumes during a seasonal decline, etc.

In this case, profit and cost indicators depend on the company’s strategy (to occupy a certain market share) or tactics for achieving specific goals (to introduce consumers to the company’s products, to increase (support) sales by applying a discount policy).

By reducing marginal profit (within the acceptable values obtained by calculation), the enterprise must have a good idea of the efficiency of its work and know the real size of production costs. Only by determining the lower limit of the potential decrease in profit, the company will be able to control the risks associated with such a decrease, which can have a detrimental effect on the solvency and financial stability of the enterprise.

From this point of view, the cost indicator becomes more important than profit, sales volume, etc. Indeed, the company incurs expenses from the moment of registration until complete liquidation. At the same time, the source of financing costs can be different (owners’ contribution, borrowed funds, revenue, earned profit), but its absence stops the activity of the enterprise and leads to bankruptcy.

2.3. Income management methods

Revenue management techniques (also known as revenue management or real-time pricing) are an optimization model based on demand forecasting for market micro-segments.

Revenue management is an economic technique aimed at determining the best pricing policy to optimize enterprise income based on determining demand behavior. Enterprises that primarily use this method have the following common features:

“perishable inventory” (that is, services or products whose value goes to zero after the date of production; an example would be all unoccupied seats on an airplane or empty hotel rooms that have a net value of zero; this is called zero inventory turnover);

variable demand and fixed production capacity (demand fluctuates, sometimes higher, sometimes lower than available capacity; capacity itself is limited);

sales by advance booking (sale of inventory or production capacity some time before the actual date of production of services);

complex pricing structure (since demand and price change flexibly in accordance with various factors, differentiated pricing is practiced: when the price is reduced, additional profit is generated by attracting a segment of customers who are most sensitive to price changes; establishing certain restrictions on prices and sales quotas based on the segment/price indicator will help limit the decrease in the share of customers whose sensitivity to price changes is the least),

very low variable costs per unit of products or services produced (depending on the specific sector, this figure ranges from 0 to 20% of all costs).

The revenue management method maximizes two sources of revenue: volume and price per unit of services produced. Price optimization is the basis of the revenue management method - changing prices depending on demand.

An effective price is a price that meets both the interests of the seller and the interests of the buyer. When we are talking about an enterprise that is already operating on the market, it is not faced with the task of calculating prices; its management rather solves the issues of optimizing pricing policy and increasing income. But every new company inevitably asks itself the question of what price should be set. Few calculation methods are known. Analogue methods include low and high price methods.

The low price method assumes that the company monitors the pricing policies of competitors and relies on it when choosing its market entry strategy. At the same time, it sets prices lower than those of its competitors. This method operates under conditions of elastic demand for goods or services. Markets with elastic demand are characterized by the fact that even a small change in price causes a significant change in demand. If demand is elastic, then by lowering the price, the company will be able to receive additional income from an increase in turnover. If demand is inelastic, the opposite process occurs: a decrease in price leads to a decrease in total income.

The high price method is the opposite of the previous one, it involves setting higher prices than your main competitors. At the same time, the company that decides to do this invariably emphasizes its exclusive advantages in its advertising policy. And since quality in the consumer’s mind is strongly associated with price, this tactic has a chance of success. At the same time, this policy is limited in application, since the consumer does not always believe that high prices are justified. Comparing inflated prices with offers from other companies of a similar class, the client will most likely prefer not to overpay.

The method of managing income by setting high or low prices can be called spontaneous. It can hardly be qualified as effective: it does not allow you to get maximum income, since it operates within a limited framework. However, this method is the most common: it is used by absolutely all market participants.

The tariff plan method, compared to the high-low price method, is a more advanced revenue management mechanism. It can be said that the ability to offer the same product to different customer groups at different prices is the basic principle of the method. If a company applies several tariff plans that simultaneously cover a large number of client categories, this gives it the opportunity to make a larger number of sales at different prices, and, accordingly, receive greater total income. Each tariff plan involves not only its own conditions of use, but also a clear purpose for a specific client group. The development of a tariff plan is preceded by the process of segmenting the customer base - this technique is used by most market participants.

In addition to these techniques, revenue management methods also include group quotas and group optimization.

In financial terms, the application of the income management method has the following result: under constant environmental conditions, the systematic use of the income management method can increase turnover by an average of 7%, which can cause a very significant increase in the volume of income.

2.4. Cost Management Techniques

Almost all business managers use some kind of “special” cost management system (CMS), which gives a certain result. But few people can clearly say what elements this system consists of, how it works, and most importantly, how it is related to the profit and profitability indicators of a particular company. Most often, CMS in an enterprise means control of all expenses and their maximum limitation.

It is difficult to directly manage specific costs, since it is often difficult to calculate all the consequences of changes (especially if we are talking about the costs of a large organization). This process proceeds much more efficiently when the object of management is a complex system that takes into account all the relationships determined by the specifics of the enterprise’s activities. The rules for the functioning of the control system and the composition of its elements depend on the correct formulation of the goal, which is determined through the understanding of cost management as a separate business function.

The enterprise is faced with problems of linking the costs incurred to a specific product (service); hidden (implicit) costs; transferring investment costs to products, etc. These issues are resolved by developing principles for calculating product costs and building a well-thought-out internal control system.

The second stage of the cost management process is associated with determining the structure and amount of costs, taking into account limited financial capabilities. An effective solution most often is the use of scientific labor organization and sound approaches to standardization (developed using cost analysis techniques).

At the third stage of cost management, you should determine the employees responsible for the costs. The solution to this problem lies in the control of key points of the production business process. A competent description of cost centers (cost centers) and the appointment of authorized persons with sufficient knowledge will allow, by eliminating the factor of “redistribution” of responsibility, to correctly evaluate the work of individual employees and entire departments.

The traditional control system is based on target indicators for cost volumes: when the specified values are achieved, the employee (department) is encouraged, and if they deviate, they are fined. This leads to the fact that instead of producing the required quantity of products at the optimal level of costs and flexible response to market needs, departments strive to meet the established financial limits at any cost.

Serious consideration of the issue of personnel participation in the distribution of the results obtained from cost optimization is extremely rare. Therefore, having introduced such a control system, the manager after some time is faced with the fact that not a single issue is resolved without his personal participation, and the enterprise is “in a fever”, despite the strict budgetary framework and the implementation of the cost plan.

So, the main goal of building a control system is not limited to limiting and controlling costs - it is to optimize costs in order for the enterprise to obtain a given result.

This task defines the main blocks of the system:

formalization of the strategy and goals of the enterprise;

description of the organizational and functional structure;

cost classifier based on formalized principles;

regulatory documentation (analysis of consumer qualities, cost and target audience), business process standards, etc.;

methods for calculating product costs;

principles of scientific cost regulation;

accounting and analysis of spending of funds;

motivation (system of rewards and punishments);

work regulations, cost optimization action plans linked to other business functions of the enterprise.

These elements can be linked into a single whole by defining the principles of their interaction and writing regulations for the functioning of the control system.

Thus, the initial task of controlling and limiting costs turned out to be the tip of the iceberg, hiding a layer of problems associated with increasing the efficiency of an enterprise through cost management.

The successful solution of the problem depends on whether the enterprise management is aware of the need to move from “control and cutting” to the introduction of a scientific method to justify the required level of costs.

The quality of performance of core business functions determines the company's position in the market and its financial stability. Each business function generates a certain amount of costs, product or non-product related. As a result of production activities, the product acquires a certain value (added value) for the consumer (market) in the present or future. Any control system is based on a description and analysis of the product’s qualities. This description must take into account the life cycle of the product, the need for its replacement and modernization. Therefore, it is necessary to consider not only existing consumer qualities, but also those that may be in demand in the future. All properties of a product must be assessed from the point of view of the costs required for its release. The description compiled in this way is the basis for the application of the most modern management techniques.

Having determined the consumer qualities of the product, you can move on to the description and analysis of business processes directly related to the production cycle.

The main functions of the enterprise form a chain starting with development and ending with after-sales service of the product. To describe it, the term “value chain” was introduced. Typically, it includes the following processes: research and development; product and technology development; production; marketing; sales; after-sales service. The construction of a control system must take into account this chain of values. In this case, all expenses of the enterprise on cost centers are considered in five aspects:

consumer (target audience) expectations;

economic capabilities of the enterprise (quality, labor productivity, operating costs, amount of losses);

development needs (product life cycle, development plan, own capabilities for creation and improvement);

the composition of the value chain for the product from a macroeconomic point of view and the place of the enterprise in the supply chain;

process management needs and unproductive (forced) costs.

It is advisable to consider costs element by element: in this way it is easier to develop an action plan to optimize costs. The detailing of cost elements in this case is determined by the needs and capabilities of the enterprise. The minimum set of components that does not contradict existing regulatory documents includes:

material costs;

personnel costs (salaries);

costs associated with paying for services from third party providers.

The initial stage of building a control system is a comprehensive study of the current state of the enterprise. First, we consider the costs that directly determine the cost of products brought to market. To analyze and develop plans, the accrual method based on the product description must be used. This will allow you to avoid common mistakes in the future associated with the misconception that control over the funds spent is tantamount to control over the costs themselves. To assess the real amount of costs, in any case, it is necessary to track costs in work in progress, the volume of inventory and the amount of accounts payable. The product description allows you to predict costs and set analytical parameters to control the actual level of production costs.

Then the amount and composition of overhead costs are determined. In the short term, they can be reduced without harming the current activities of the enterprise, but the grounds for this should only be serious problems with solvency.

Lastly, as a rule, the amount and composition of costs associated with the needs of process management and unproductive (forced) expenses are considered. This type of costs is the most difficult to standardize, but they represent the main reserve for cost reduction.

Based on a comprehensive analysis, a control system is built as part of the above blocks. It acts as an object, allowing you to manage costs comprehensively, and not through selective influence with unclear results. By neglecting to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the impact of costs on various aspects of the enterprise’s activities, you can make the wrong decision about the required amount of costs.

2.5. Budgeting as the basis for managing income and expenses

A budget is a set of interrelated plans, expressed in financial and/or physical indicators, for the enterprise as a whole or its division (budget unit) for a certain period of time. The main goal of the budgeting system is the effective organization of the process of managing the activities of an enterprise and its structural divisions through planning, control of income and expense items and analysis of financial and economic indicators.

The objectives of the budgeting system are:

1) Planning (through certain, pre-approved procedures, the budgeting system allows you to plan the activities of the enterprise within the budgeting horizon);

2) Coordination (the budgeting system consolidates the budgets of structural units into the enterprise budget, and coordinates the operational activities of the enterprise);

3) Authorization (the budgeting system vests heads of structural units, divisions and heads of the enterprise management apparatus, as well as certain managers with rights and responsibilities that allow them to manage the process of drawing up and approving enterprise budgets);

4) Performance assessment (the budgeting system, based on the results of budget implementation, determines the basis for assessing the effectiveness of the activities of enterprise managers);

5) Motivation (the budgeting system, by involving more employees of the enterprise in the planning and control process, allows them to increase their interest in the results of their work and the results of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise);

6) Analysis of execution and control (analysis of execution within the budgeting system is carried out by comparing planned and actual indicators, as well as by standardizing indicators; control involves a set of procedures that ensure clear and efficient operational implementation of the budget).

Subjects of the budgeting system are considered to be all participants in the budgeting process, that is, all those structural units that are somehow involved in at least one of the stages or procedures of the budgeting system. The budgeting system assumes two groups of parameters (in relation to the enterprise):

external parameters (budgeting horizon, budget chart of accounts, base planning currency, reporting interval, standard analytical and reporting forms, etc.);

internal parameters (parameters determined by the Budget and Investment Committee of the enterprise).

The enterprise budgeting system is based on the following basic principles:

the principle of planning three forms of reporting (“Profit and Loss Statement”, “Cash Flow Statement”, “Balance Sheet”);

macro planning based on the “top-down” principle (this principle implies the beginning of the annual planning process with the centralized approval of the main performance indicators of the enterprise);

principle of distribution of responsibility (the budgeting system assumes a matrix structure of distribution of responsibility);

principle of consolidation;

the principle of accounting and redistribution of expenses and income;

the principle of rationing (rationing is one of the most important tools for planning and controlling the income and expenses of structural units);

the principle of mutual settlements with consumers and suppliers;

financing principle;

the principle of dividing repair costs into operational and investment components;

the break-even principle of budget units.

The initial link in budget management is the budget of income and expenses. In operational accounting, the cash budget, with the same organizational and methodological problems of its formation and the volume of processing of primary documents, is uninformative. At the same time, the introduction of income and expense budgeting technology will allow you to control not only the enterprise’s profit, but also financial flows. Depending on the priorities, individual items of income and expenses can be subjected to analytical detail by separating them into independent or component budgets.

The choice of planning period is no less important. In modern economic conditions, developing a budget for a year or more is problematic. And monthly planning narrows the strategic scope of management, especially in the production of products with a long technological cycle. The optimal planning period seems to be a quarter.

The practical implementation of budgeting technology allows you to create system management strategies in the planned period; determine rational ways to achieve your goals; provide the necessary information to senior management for making operational decisions; objectively evaluate the work of staff.

An enterprise budget allows you to manage income and expenses because:

You can control planned and actual income and expenses (by items, cost elements) by departments and periods; In this case, the cause of deviations, the culprit, methods for eliminating deviations, measures of influence, etc. are established;

The budget allows you to predict the state of the enterprise for a certain period of time;

It is possible to plan and control cash flows on a daily basis by drawing up a payment calendar and identifying cash gaps;

You can evaluate the financial condition (through the balance sheet), the profitability of the enterprise (through the budget of income and expenses), solvency (through the cash flow budget);

You can analyze income and expenses for any comparable periods of time;

Using the “what if” mechanism, you can determine the impact of some financial indicators on others; create several budget options;

You can receive budgets by department (financial responsibility centers), consolidated budgets;

You can determine the planned and actual break-even point; link functional budgets with cost budgets;

You can drill down into the overall financial goals of an enterprise down to its divisions.

Expenditure

Amount, thousand rubles

Change

Conditionally fixed expenses

Office rental

Office maintenance expenses

Depreciation

Database replenishment

Total semi-fixed expenses:

Conditionally variable expenses

Salary with accruals,

including AUP and service personnel

Education

Business trips

Intracorporate events

Total semi-variable expenses

4 369,20

6 703,09

Total expenses

5 316,00

7 980,90

Thus, it can be noted that with an increase in sales revenue by 29%, semi-fixed costs increased by 35%, and semi-variable ones - by 50%, which is a negative point in the activity of the enterprise and a decrease in the efficiency of its work.

3.4. Calculation of the cost and sales price of services of LLC "Intellect-Resource"

The number of employees of Intellect-Resource LLC is 20 people, of which 15 are consultants, 3 are service personnel and 2 are management personnel (the ratio of professionals to management personnel and service personnel in the proportion of 3:1 is the most optimal and, as a rule, more often encountered in practice).

The average salary (income) with accruals to extra-budgetary funds of one employee working in the company (hereinafter all basic cost indicators are shown per month) is 14 thousand rubles, incl. consultants - 15 thousand rubles, service personnel - 5 thousand rubles, management staff - 20 thousand rubles.

The total wage fund with accruals is 280 thousand rubles.

The average number of man-hours per month is (out of 160 average monthly work hours):

15 people x 160 hours = 2400 people/hours.

The average monthly expenses are 5,316,000 rubles. /12 months = 443,000 rub.

Thus, the cost of one man-hour will be:

443000: 2400 = 185 rub.

But this indicator is not enough to determine the selling price of a service. In the consulting business, not all of the “goods” produced (time) are sold, but only a portion of the total working time. The rest of the time will be taken up by certain types of in-house work, time spent on self-training, vacations, illness, etc., i.e. everything that will not be paid for by clients. However, this unpaid time must also be compensated, otherwise its cost will become a direct loss to us. In this regard, we must take into account the cost of this time when determining the cost of the service.

Based on the practice of consulting companies in Russia, on average, about 50% of consultants’ working time is spent on clients, while the rest of the time is unpaid. In this regard, we can multiply the result we obtained by 2, after which we get the real cost of one man-hour of specialist work per client - 370 rubles.

Again, based on data from practice, the profitability of the consulting business in Russia averages 25-30%. Applying a minimum profitability of 25%, we get the value we need:

370 + 25% = 463 rub.

Thus, the cost of consulting services will be approximately 463 rubles. for one hour of specialist work.

However, for consultations, a differentiated approach to pricing is used, which is determined by the qualifications of the specialist. The rate is 463 rubles. designed for “average” qualified specialists. You can use decreasing (increasing) coefficients to the average cost of the service. At Intellect-Resource LLC, the average salary with accruals for one consultant is 15,000 rubles. But the salary range is from 10,000 rubles. up to 18,000 rub. depending on the qualifications of the employee. Accordingly, the reduction factor to the sales price in the case of consulting by a junior employee will be:

10000: 15000 = 0,67

Therefore, the cost of the service will be:

463 rub. x 0.67 = 310.21 rub.

The increase factor will be 18000: 15000 = 1.2

In this case, the cost of the service will be equal to:

463 x 1.2 = 555.6 rub.

The average actual rate for services provided over a certain period of time will most likely be lower than declared, because it is determined taking into account various discounts provided to regular or promising customers.

3.5. Planning of income and expenses of Intellect-Resource LLC

Having detailed information about the structure of working time and the cost of a man-hour, we will be able to calculate indicators that allow us to quickly and timely make effective management decisions.

These indicators include:

profitability (of employee, project, company);

financial incentives;

indicators of working time structure.

Cost accounting should be based not only on the principle of “conditionally variable – conditionally fixed” costs in general, but also for each specific division. Intellect-Resource LLC has two divisions: the software and accounting support department and the customs clearance department. In this regard, the question arises of how it is necessary to distribute indirect costs and what they are in general. Direct expenses for the unit include wages with accruals for the specialists working in it, depreciation of equipment used only by them and expenses directly related to these employees: mobile and landline telephone communications, travel expenses, costs of training and advanced training. Everything else is indirect costs: rent and operation of the office, depreciation of general company equipment (computers, copiers, fax machines and other office equipment), replenishment of databases (except for those used exclusively by employees of this department), security, maintenance of management and maintenance personnel .

It is possible to construct accounting when there will be no indirect costs as such, and all costs will be of a direct nature. For example, calculate how much area a unit occupies. The cost of renting common areas used can be allocated to a department in proportion to the share of employees working in this department in the total number of personnel using these areas. You can install a counter on the copier for each department, etc. However, the cost of such detailing can significantly increase the cost of accounting, especially since there is no urgent need for it.

It is enough to distribute all indirect costs depending on the number of employees of the department: if the department employs 5 people, which is 25% of the total staff, then indirect costs must be distributed in the proportion of 1 to 4. Another acceptable method is to distribute indirect costs depending on the position occupied subdivision of the area. This will be advisable if the area per employee in one department differs significantly from others, and then only for the costs of maintaining and maintaining the office.

Thus, it is possible to determine the cost of services provided by a specific department. From the time tracking program, you can obtain information about how many hours (including in value terms) were presented by department employees to clients for payment during a certain period of time.

The customs clearance department employs 5 people. Of the 800 hours he worked during the month (160 hours x 5 people), 400 hours were presented to clients for payment for a total amount of 300,000 rubles. (750 rub./hour). The cost of maintaining the unit for this month amounted to 263,158 rubles. Accordingly, the profitability of the division will be:

300,000: 263,158 = 1.14 or 14%, which is below the company's average profitability (25-30%).

Objective: to find out the reasons why the division’s profitability was lower than the company average. Perhaps this is an insufficient workload of staff with client work, a low professional level of consultants, as a result of which they have to spend a significant part of their time on preliminary study of the issue, studying legislation (this time is usually not allocated to the client), excessive workload with in-house, unpaid work, etc. . Based on the analysis of this information, it is possible to take the necessary measures to increase the profitability of the department - from measures to improve the qualifications of employees to changing the system of remuneration for their labor and motivation in general.

Conclusions: this month, after analyzing all of the above reasons, it was found that the low profitability of this unit was caused by the novelty of the subject of consulting, the need to attract the services of a third-party organization and high costs of communication and the Internet. Based on these facts, a decision was made to improve the qualifications of employees, install and use additional databases, and transfer employees of this department to a different cellular tariff. In the same way, you can determine the profitability and efficiency of the company as a whole, specific employees, etc.

In the structure of working time, consultants are interested in the shares of various types of work in it (client, internal, self-training, absence from work for one reason or another, etc.) and their dynamics within the year, as well as in comparison with similar periods of previous years. This data will help you plan staff workload and vacations most effectively, regulate the number of consultants in a timely manner, identify weaknesses in the organization of employee working hours, etc.

Thus, you can obtain a variety of reliable information for making effective management decisions - from stimulating employees to adjusting the work of departments and the business as a whole. Management accounting will serve as the basis for building company business plans for a certain future, for the creation and development of new areas of activity.

Conclusion

An organization's income is recognized as an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets (cash, other property) or the repayment of liabilities, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from owners.

An organization's expenses are recognized as a decrease in economic benefits as a result of the disposal of assets (cash, other property) or the occurrence of liabilities leading to a decrease in the capital of this organization, with the exception of a decrease in contributions by decision of participants.

The income and expenses of an enterprise can be classified according to different criteria. The classification of income and expenses is especially important for reporting and accounting.

An important principle is the correspondence of income or expenses between the current and future periods of the organization’s activities. It means that revenues are recognized only at the same time as their corresponding expenses (expenses incurred to generate those revenues), and vice versa.

Financial analysis and control are the most important tools for managing income and expenses. Analysis is practically the only tool for assessing the reliability of a potential partner, since accounting data taken in isolation from one another does not allow one to create a holistic picture of the financial position of the enterprise. The success of economic activity at all levels of the management hierarchy directly depends on the level of management and timely decisions made. Making the right management decision and identifying its rationality and effectiveness can only be done on the basis of a preliminary economic analysis.

Control and analysis are the initial stages of management, which, in turn, are one of the elements in a unified enterprise management system. The greatest effect can be achieved in combination with other common programs and techniques. In particular, with the following management technologies:

planning and budgeting system (based on rationing, scientific forecasting, etc.);

a system of comprehensive analysis and controlling (analysis of cost carriers, structure, dynamics; construction of an accounting system and determination of benchmark indicators, etc.);

personnel management (motivation, systems of involvement in business processes, etc.);

system of organizational support for management (developed and updated regulations for work, decision-making, formation of action plans, procurement procedures).

Thus, effective management of income and expenses at different levels is ensured by the use of methodological unity, which presupposes uniform requirements for information support, planning, accounting, and analysis at the enterprise.

The most important principle for comparing income and expenses in an enterprise is to achieve the required profitability.

Revenue management methods are an optimization model based on forecasting demand for market micro-segments. Revenue management is an economic technique aimed at determining the best pricing policy to optimize enterprise income based on determining demand behavior. The revenue management method maximizes two sources of revenue: volume and price per unit of services produced. Cost management in combination with price and sales volume control allows you to achieve greater results than price and sales volume management with simple cost control. And in conditions of limited demand or a highly competitive market, the issue of cost management becomes vital. The main goal of building a cost management system is not limited to limiting and controlling costs - it is to optimize costs in order for the enterprise to obtain a given result.

The work examined the features of accounting for income and expenses of Intellect-Resource LLC. Analysis of financial results showed negative dynamics of the enterprise's profitability indicators, which indicates a decrease in the efficiency of using the enterprise's profits. The company needs to intensify efforts to reduce the level of commercial and other expenses and look for additional ways to make a profit.

In general, it can be noted that the enterprise should:

Start implementing your own budgeting system. This can be done either in the 1C: Enterprise 8.1 program used, or using the Excel office application;

Taking into account the fact that the growth of semi-fixed and semi-variable expenses at the enterprise exceeds the growth of sales revenue, the enterprise should determine variable cost standards linked to sales revenue;

An analysis of the planned and actual expenses of the enterprise should be carried out on an ongoing basis and the causes of deviations should be identified;

The enterprise should identify responsible employees who are responsible for both expenses and income (both in volume and structure) with their motivation tied to results.

Income of the organization (PBU 9/99)
From normal activities	Other income
Revenue from the sale of products and goods, income related to the performance of work, provision of services	Income related to: · provision for a fee for temporary use (possession) of the organization’s assets* · provision for a fee of rights arising from patents and other types of intellectual property* · participation in the authorized capitals of other organizations* · profit received by the organization as a result of joint activities (under a simple partnership agreement); · sale of fixed assets and other assets other than cash, products, goods; · interest received for the provision of funds to the organization for use, incl. banks * If this type of activity is not the main one (otherwise it is classified as expenses for ordinary types of activity)	· assets received free of charge, including under a gift agreement; · proceeds to compensate for losses caused to the organization; · profit of previous years identified in the reporting year; · amounts of accounts payable and depositors for which the statute of limitations has expired; · exchange differences; · the amount of revaluation of assets; · Other income.	Receipts arising as a consequence of emergency circumstances of economic activity (natural disaster, fire, accident, nationalization, etc.): the cost of material assets remaining from the write-off of assets unsuitable for restoration and further use, etc.
The following are not recognized as income of the organization:
amounts of value added tax, excise taxes, sales tax, export duties and other similar mandatory payments; under commission agreements, agency and other similar agreements in favor of the principal, principal, etc.; in advance payment for products, goods, works, services; advances in payment for products, goods, works, services; deposit; as collateral, if the agreement provides for the transfer of the pledged property to the pledgee; in repayment of a loan granted to the borrower.

Classification of organization expenses according to

Organizational expenses (PBU 10/99)
By normal activities	other expenses
Expenses associated with the manufacture of products and the sale of products, the acquisition and sale of goods, expenses the implementation of which is associated with the performance of work and the provision of services. Grouping by elements: · material costs; · labor costs; · contributions for social needs; · depreciation; · other costs.	Asset disposals related to: · provision of temporary use (possession) of the organization’s assets for a fee; · provision for a fee of rights arising from patents and other types of intellectual property ; · participation in the authorized capitals of other organizations; · with the sale, disposal and other write-off of fixed assets and other assets other than cash, goods, products; · payment for services provided by credit institutions; · interest paid by the organization for the provision of loans and borrowings; · contributions to valuation reserves and reserves created in connection with the recognition of contingent facts of economic activity; · other If this type of activity is not the main one (otherwise it is classified as expenses for ordinary activities)	· fines, penalties, penalties for violation of contract terms; · compensation for losses caused by the organization; · losses from previous years; · the amount of receivables for which the statute of limitations has expired, and other debts that are unrealistic for collection; · exchange differences; · amount of asset depreciation; · transfer of funds related to charitable activities; · for the implementation of sporting events, recreation, entertainment, cultural and educational events and other similar events; · others.	Expenses arising as a consequence of emergency circumstances of economic activity (natural disaster, fire, accident, nationalization of property, etc.)
The following are not recognized as expenses of the organization:
in connection with the acquisition (creation) of non-current assets (fixed assets, construction in progress, intangible assets, etc.); contributions to the authorized (share) capitals of other organizations, acquisition of shares of joint-stock companies and other securities not for the purpose of resale (sale); under commission agreements, agency and other similar agreements in favor of the principal, principal, etc.; in the order of advance payment of inventories and other valuables, works, services; in the form of advances, deposits to pay for inventories and other valuables, works, services; to repay a loan received by the organization.

Income and expenses in the IFRS system


Concept (definition)	Income- an increase in economic benefits that occurs in the form of a receipt or increase in assets or a decrease in liabilities, which is expressed in an increase in capital not associated with the contributions of the founders.	Expenses- a decrease in economic benefits that occurs in the form of disposal or reduction of assets or an increase in liabilities leading to a decrease in capital not related to distribution between the founders.
Criteria for recognition in the income statement	1. It is probable that the entity will receive or lose future economic benefits attributable to the relevant item of recognition.
	2. Increases (decreases) in assets and decreases (increases) in liabilities can be reliably estimated
	3. Recognition of income occurs simultaneously with the recognition of an increase in assets or a decrease in liabilities (sale of goods, refusal to pay a debt).	3. Recognition of expenses occurs simultaneously with the recognition of an increase in liabilities or a decrease in assets (salary arrears, depreciation of equipment).
Classification of income and expenses
According to economic essence	Revenue- gross receipt of economic benefits in the course of core activities, leading to an increase in capital. Other income- receipts of economic benefits not from the main activity, which, as a rule, are irregular.	Expenses for ordinary activities: 1. Product cost 2. Operating expenses - expenses associated with direct activities, but different from the costs attributable to the cost of goods sold. o commercial expenses (related to the sale of products); o general business expenses (related to the organization of activities). Losses- expenses that may or may not arise in the course of the main activity.
Based on reporting periods	Income of the current reporting period- income, the occurrence of which is due to the facts of economic activity and events of the current reporting period, recognized in the current reporting period: 1. income due to expenses incurred in a given reporting period; 2. income not related to the occurrence of current expenses. Income for future reporting periods(deferred income) - income due to the facts of economic activity and events of the current reporting period, but recognized in the income statement in future periods.	Expenses of the current reporting period- expenses caused by the facts of economic activity of the current reporting period and recognized in the profit and loss statement of this period: 1. expenses caused by income received in a given reporting period; 2. expenses not related to the receipt of current income. Expenses of future reporting periods(deferred expenses) - contingent expenses not recognized as expenses in the current reporting period in the income statement: 1. investments (capital investments); 2. deferred expenses.

Appendix 2

Characteristics of indicators of the financial condition of the enterprise

Indicator name	Calculation method
Overall Coverage Ratio	Working capital / Current liabilitiesa
Current liquidity	Working capital - Accounts receivable / Current liabilitiesa
Absolute liquidity	Cash / Current liabilitiesa
Urgent liquidity	Cash + Short term. Finnish attachments / Short-term liabilities
Liquidity of funds in circulation	Cash + Short-term financial investments+ + Accounts receivable / Current liabilitiesa
Liquidity when raising funds	Material working capital / Current liabilitiesa

Appendix 3

Financial stability ratios

Indicators	Calculation method
Level equity	Equity / Balance sheet	0.6 or more
Leverage ratio and equity	Liabilities / Equity
Security non-current assets own capital	Non-working capital/ Equity
Circulating ratio and non-working capital	Working capital / Non-current capital	Depending on the type of activity
Clean level working capital	Working capital – Short term obligations/ Balance sheet	The higher the value, the more stable financial condition
Level invested capital	Long-term financial investments - Short-term financial attachments / Balance sheet	Shows the share of investment in total property value
Level operating capital	Balance sheet – Long-term financial investments - Short-term financial investments / Balance sheet	Shows share functioning capital in total cost enterprise property

Appendix 4

Profit and loss report for 2008

(form No. 2)

Organization: LLC "Intellect-Resource"

units unit: thousand rub.

Indicator name	Line code	reporting period	For the same period of the previous year

Income and expenses from ordinary activities
Revenue (net) from the sale of goods, products, works, services (less value added tax, excise taxes and similar mandatory payments)
Cost of goods, products, works, services sold
Gross profit
Business expenses
Administrative expenses
Profit (loss) from sales
Other income and expenses Other income
other expenses
Profit (loss) before tax Controlling concept: Management accounting. Reporting system. Budgeting (3rd edition). // M.: Alpina Business Books, 2008. Kerimov V.E. Budgeting and internal control in trade. Tutorial. // Eksmo, 2006.