Introduction to control theory. Abstract: Topic introduction to management theory: a golden bridle will not make a nag a trotter Theory of scientific management
The educational and methodological complex is the basis for preparing for practical classes and the exam, provides a brief summary of the basic topics of the course, and demonstrates the required level of mastery of each question. At the same time, the structure of the lectures represents a scheme that does not pretend to be comprehensive and the utmost depth of presentation of the material. However, the emphasis placed allows us to determine the directions for searching for additional knowledge about management.
To broaden your horizons, structure and adjust the ideologically holistic system, and expand your knowledge on the course, you need to familiarize yourself with the main literature. Keywords - management, management, public administration, public service, management paradigm, management system, enterprise management, enterprise (organization) management, management functions, management laws, management styles and methods, self-management, self-organization, corporate management, strategic management, etc.
Currently, there is no shortage of literature on the problems of general management theory, the fundamentals of management, and the management of organizations.
Many authors, whose names are indicated in the list of references, republish their works, changing or supplementing them in accordance with the constantly changing legislation, economic and political situation. Therefore, when searching for literature, you should not be guided only by the years of publication indicated in the list of references. It is possible that by the time this educational and methodological complex falls into your hands, new textbooks and teaching aids for the course will be published. It is advisable that you be guided by more recent literature.
Among the most significant books on the issues under consideration, we can especially highlight:
1. Fundamentals of management theory: Textbook / Ed. V.N. Parakhina, L.I. Ushvitsky. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2003. - 560 p.
2. Control theory: Textbook. Ed. 2nd / under general ed. A.L. Gaponenko, A.P. Pankrukhina. – M.: RAGS, 2005 .- 558 p.
I would like to draw your attention to the difference in the interpretation of the basic concepts of the discipline you are studying, therefore, the more sources you read, the more successfully you will complete the course test and pass tests and examinations.
When reading lectures contained in the educational and methodological complex, it is recommended to use a dictionary to clarify concepts and terms. For this purpose, the complex provides a dictionary of special terms found in the course texts, but it is also necessary to refer to other dictionaries and encyclopedias of a special and general nature.
Some management and management problems are covered in more detail in other courses and academic disciplines of the specialty, therefore, when preparing for the exam, you can use other teaching materials.
Good luck in studying the course!
Introduction
K. Marx in his work “Capital” wrote: “Every joint labor carried out on a relatively large scale needs, to a greater or lesser extent, management, which establishes consistency between individual works and performs general functions arising from the movement of the entire production organism, in contrast to movements of its individual parts... The individual violinist controls himself. An orchestra needs a conductor.”
The last decade of the twentieth century. was very tragic for Russia. The systemic crisis has affected all spheres of Russian society. One of the main reasons for the crisis is the collapse of the state and industrial management system. The loss of controllability of the economy resulted in a deep decline in production, business activity and living standards of the population. Domestic science and practice are faced with a difficult task - to develop and consistently form a modern Russian management model that is adequate to market relations and the global challenges of the 21st century.
Management theory plays an important role in this. As practically effective knowledge included in the thoughts, behavior and activities of people, it is based on a set of scientifically proven, verified and practice-recognized views on the state and patterns of functioning and development of the managed system, the control object.
Management theory is a basic discipline for preparing graduates of the specialty “State and Municipal Management”, as it provides knowledge on the history of development and the content of various scientific schools and management models. Management theory is the basis for studying courses in organizational theory, developing management decisions in other disciplines.
Purpose of the discipline: to form in students a complex of knowledge on the theory and methodology of social management and the ability to apply it in practical activities.
As a result of studying the discipline “Control Theory”, a specialist should know:
History, theory and methodology of science, its basic laws, principles, all the variety of methods used;
Laws of social systems, and their influence on the social organization of society;
Methodology for designing control systems;
Main indicators and criteria for the effectiveness of social process management;
Fundamentals of personnel policy at the enterprise;
Basic laws, principles and technologies of management.
Based on the results of studying the discipline “Control Theory”, a specialist should be able to:
Professionally and competently use the conceptual and categorical apparatus of management theory;
formulate your thoughts, justify your point of view;
Set goals and choose a set of methods for their gradual achievement;
Assess the problem situation and build a strategy for social action, find adequate innovative methods for solving social problems in the context of all existing regulators (economic, financial, legal, cultural, moral, psychological, etc.);
Develop and implement innovative methods for solving social problems and obtain optimal both social and economic, commercial results based on the correct use of social resources;
Predict and model the social consequences of decisions made, and on this basis achieve optimal management decisions that combine both improving the quality of life of people, developing social organizations, and solving institutional problems.
TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL THEORY
1.1. The concept and essence of control theory, its object and subject of study
1.2Methodology of control theory
1.3.Goals and functions of control theory
1.4.The most important elements of the management process
Self-control test No. 1
1. Choose one correct answer.
Management can be defined as
1. control relations
2. purposeful influence of the subject of management on the object of management
3. a system of active actions to implement pre-established goals
4. regulated, conscious, active influence on an object in order to achieve one’s own goals
2. Choose one correct answer.
The means of management work is
1. organization resources
2. information
3. production technique
4. management decision
3. Choose one correct answer.
Control logic refers to the system
1. management philosophy based on the management mission and characterizing management tasks
2. purposeful actions carried out in a strictly defined sequence within a specified period of time
3. management principles describing the management process in a given organization
4. management functions united by connections specific to a given organization
4. Choose one correct answer.
Economic efficiency of management is the ratio
1. production volumes and employee wages
2. costs of material, labor, financial resources and results obtained
3. profitability and turnover indicators
4. costs of material and financial resources and results obtained
5. Select all correct answer options.
Goals of control theory
1. study of the most important, typical forms of managerial relations in which the interaction of managers and managed is manifested
2. construction of the most likely directions and scenarios for the development of management activities in the future
3. study and description of existing management practices, their typification and popularization
4. Improving the quality of life of the population
6. Add.
A management decision is a _______________ that ultimately increases or decreases the efficiency of an organization.
product of managerial labor
7. Choose one correct answer.
The dynamics of the control system are determined
1. management goals
2. management structure
3.control functions
4. management decisions
8. Choose one correct answer.
The statics of the control system is determined
1. management goals
2. management structure
3. control functions
4. management decisions
9. Choose all the correct answer options.
Peculiarities of the nature of social interaction in managerial relations, which presuppose, on the one hand, the authority of the whole, and on the other, subordination to this authority
1. collegiality
2. subordination
3. subordination
4. conformism
10. Choose one correct answer.
The fundamental difference between economic and social efficiency of management is that
1. social efficiency does not directly depend on the production activities of the organization, but economic efficiency is its consequence
2. social efficiency is of less importance for the management of the organization than economic efficiency
3. social efficiency is assessed through qualitative indicators, while economic efficiency can also be assessed using quantitative indicators
4. the external environment has a greater influence on social efficiency than on economic efficiency
11. Choose one correct answer.
The structure of management theory as a science includes sections of disciplines related to management
1. sociology, political science, philosophy, psychology, cybernetics, psychology, management, economics
2. political science, social science, economics, law, mathematics, statistics
3. management, economics, psychology, cybernetics, systems engineering, philosophy
4. philosophy, cultural studies, law, political science, history
12. Establish a correspondence between the level and methodology of management theory:
:1-c,2-a,3-b,4-d
13. Add.
Management theory studies this type of relationship as ____________.
subordination
14. Choose one correct answer.
The methodology of science is
1. system of principles of scientific research
2. a set of research techniques
3. a set of techniques and technologies
4. system of methods of scientific knowledge and management
15. Add.
General theories of social management are one of the levels of knowledge in management theory. This is level __________________.
16. Choose one correct answer.
Applied theories of organization and management constitute one of the levels of knowledge in management theory. This is the level
4. fourth
17. Choose one correct answer.
Activity approach in management theory
1. focuses on external forms of organizational and economic behavior of people
2. based on the application of mathematical methods to the study of operations in an organization and the activities of a manager
3. based on considering the functions of a manager as a process of interrelated actions
4. includes identifying the goal, means, process and result of the manager’s actions
18. Choose one correct answer.
The methodology of management theory is
1. a body of knowledge, theories and concepts that explain various management phenomena
2. set of technologies and control algorithms
3. a set of research methods, procedures, techniques used in understanding management processes
4. a set of specific methods for collecting information
19. Choose one correct answer.
In modern management science there are ... levels of knowledge
The number of levels of knowledge that are distinguished in modern science
20. Choose all the correct answer options.
The criteria by which the division of labor in management is carried out are
1. control technology
2. control functions
3. management style
4. management hierarchy
21. Choose one correct answer.
Forecasting, planning, organizing, motivating, decision-making and control together represent
1. management principles
2. control functions
3. management approaches
4. control technology
22. Choose all the correct answer options.
The difficulties of transforming the Russian public administration system are associated with:
1. rigidity of organizational management structures
2. plurality of subjects of the Federation
3. lack of traditions of public administration
4. corruption in government
23. Select all correct answer options.
The thinking of a modern leader should be
1. Common sense oriented
2. traditional
3. focused on any innovation
4. marketing oriented
24. Choose one correct answer.
The century in which management as a social phenomenon received theoretical justification
25. Choose one correct answer.
The subject of management is
1. social community
2. representatives of municipal authorities
3. citizen
4. society as a whole
26. Choose one correct answer.
The formation of a system of professional knowledge and skills of a leader is called
1. competence
2. professionalism
3. vocational training
4. professional adaptation
27. Choose one correct answer.
The purpose of management is
1. achieving economic efficiency
2. establishing and maintaining social order
3. achieving the geopolitical interests of the country
4. increasing average wages
28. Choose one correct answer.
The social community of volunteers acts
1. subject of management
2. control object
3. subject of control
4. management result
29. Choose one correct answer.
Concept and functions of policy
and political management of the Black Sea Branch of RANEPA Chernov Gennady Yuryevich.
Section I. Introduction to the theory of political management.
2. The concept of management.
1. Political management as a science, academic discipline and type of practical activity. Functions of political management.
Political management is one of the branches of political science.
The object of research for the science of political management is political management processes occurring in the political, social and other spheres of society, in political institutions and social communities.
The subject of the theory of political management consists of patterns and principles, as well as methods and technologies for managing society as a whole and its political subsystem.
The purpose of the theory of political management: study, evaluation and improvement of institutions, methods and technologies of political management (including those related to the development, adoption and implementation of political decisions).
Table 1. Main tasks of political management
As a new field of knowledge, political management was formed in the 2nd half of the twentieth century, primarily in the USA, at the junction of three groups of social sciences and humanities:
1) social And socio-political(political science, sociology, economics);
2) epistemological those studying cognitive processes (philosophy, psychology, information and communication studies);
3) managerial, actually managerial (management theory, organizational theory, public administration, etc.)
The origins of this interdisciplinary synthesis are in the late 1940s and 1950s. were American scientists Herbert Simon (“Administrative Behavior”, 1947) and Harold Lasswell, who together with Daniel Lerner published the work “Political and Administrative Sciences” (1951).
The formation of the science of political management is closely connected with the isolation and development of such a branch of applied political research as political analysis (1930-50s). The prerequisite for the development of this area of applied political science, and then the formation of the science of political management, was the need to assess the effectiveness of decisions made by the state and political elites in view of the expansion of the scope of state intervention in socio-economic relations (neoliberalism, Keynesianism). In 1937, the School of Government was created at Harvard University (USA), which was engaged in the development of programs and methods of political analysis. Since the 1950s in the USA they associate the beginning of the so-called “political movement” (policy movement), oriented, according to G. Lasswell, at giving political science an applied, pragmatic orientation by combining democratic theory with management practice.
Today, research in the field of political management is actively conducted in the Russian Federation. It is possible to identify a number of schools and directions in the study of the problems of political governance in the Russian Federation:
political and administrative (Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation; prominent representatives - O.F. Shabrov, V.S. Komarovsky, M.G. Anokhin);
political-managerial (M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University; A.I. Solovyov, G.V. Pushkareva, S.G. Turonok, etc.);
political network (St. Petersburg State University; L.V. Smogunov, A.P. Algin, V.P. Miletsky).
The science of political management performs a number of socially significant functions:
cognitive (epistemological) the function is to study and explain political management as a special form of socio-political interaction, to reveal the most important patterns and methods of political management of social processes;
evaluative (axiological) the function is implemented in the formation of criteria for assessing the state of political management systems, in terms of their effectiveness, compliance/non-compliance with the needs and interests of society and the state;
technological and management the function is manifested in the development of methods and technologies aimed at improving political and managerial activities.
It is possible to highlight a number of functions associated with the application of the provisions of political and administrative science in the practice of political management:
applied a function manifested in the use of conclusions, recommendations and assessments of the theory of political management in the development, adoption and implementation of political and managerial decisions;
prognostic a function that is realized in determining the prospects and trends (trends) for the development of managed and control systems based on the theoretical principles of political and administrative science;
educational (socializing) the function is manifested in the dissemination, primarily through the teaching of the academic discipline “Political Management,” knowledge, skills, and experience of political management in order to improve the political culture of citizens and, in particular, subjects of political decision-making (political elites).
The last function, considered as the translation of the provisions of scientific theory through an academic discipline into the ideological and professional arsenal of the emerging political elite, seems especially important given the need of society for a highly competent, widely erudite, democratically minded cohort capable of making non-standard decisions in conditions of uncertainty and risk political leaders of a new formation.
2. The concept of management.
Political management is one of the types of management activities, management.
There are several definitions of the concept of “management”, from general philosophical to specific scientific ones, related to the theories and practice of management in Western countries. Here are some of them:
“a function of organized systems that ensures the preservation of their structure, supports the established mode of activity and realizes the goals of this activity”;
“a set of certain impacts of the subject of management on the managed object”;
getting things done through other people (“getting things done by other people”).
To understand the politically-oriented context of the use of the term “management” (in contrast to the term of foreign origin “management”, which initially focused on management processes in the economic sphere), it would be useful to carry out an etymological reconstruction of the original meanings of the word “manage” in Russian. So what does it mean to “manage”? “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dalia gives the following interpretations of the term:
To rule, to give progress, direction;
To manage, to manage;
Overcome obstacles, difficulties, self-will, succeeding in something;
Put in order (organize).
This seemingly simple and understandable interpretation allows us to discern the unity of several important functions of social management, which can include:
teleological(goal-setting, guiding);
administrative-distributive(control and management of public resources);
powerful-willed oriented towards overcoming problems and conflicts relying on power resources;
finally, integrating, systematizing (both in relation to social communities and various spheres of public life).
Opinion:
The famous Russian political scientist Gennady Ivanovich Kozyrev not only defines management, but also notes such a feature of management processes in society as their rational, purposeful nature:
"Management - systematic, purposeful the impact of the subject of management activities on the managed object with the aim of its ordering, preservation and development.”
“Society (social community), like any system, is subject to the action of various regulators, including spontaneous ones. Management is the highest form conscious regulation of the processes of functioning and development of the system."
The purpose of management is to maintain the stable functioning of the managed object, its further development and/or transfer to a new qualitative state (reform).
The structure of management activities includes the following elements:
subject of management– an individual, group, organization, social institution that is the bearer of managerial influence on the object;
control object– social system (society, social community, organization, individual, etc.), to which all types of managerial influence are directed;
management resources (means)– everything that can induce or force the managed object to carry out the orders (instructions, orders) of the subject (material reward, physical coercion, charisma of the subject of management, moral and legal norms, traditions, ideas, power of the subject of management, etc.).
Applied to political management V.D. Zimin and N.A. Borisov is proposed to be understood as controls political technologies, methods and procedures that ensure the transfer and perception of control influence based on the exchange of information both within the political system and outside it.
They also highlight as a special control component control channels(political communications) – directions of mutual influence of the subject and object in the control system (direct and feedback), as well as the receipt of information from the external environment.
3. Essence, structure and features of political management. Directive and communicative models of political management.
In modern Russian political and managerial thought there is no single point of view regarding the essence and structure of political management. However, it is possible to identify a number of positions shared by groups of researchers. The basis for the demarcation (separation) of these positions are, first of all, different ideas about the relationship between political and public administration: from the complete identification of these concepts, consideration of political administration as an integral part of the state, to the inclusion of public administration in the structure of political administration as one of the elements of the latter.
Opinions
So, according to G.I. Kozyrev, political management is one of the types of public administration along with administrative, economic, social management and represents one of the forms of interaction between policy subjects regarding the development, adoption and implementation of political decisions.
A similar position is held by Rashid Tazitdinovich Mukhaev, Doctor of Political Sciences, author of a number of well-known textbooks. He views political management as part of public administration(along with public administration).
From his point of view, at the level of political management regulation of social relations is carried out in 2 main directions:
1) policy formulation - government actions aimed at developing goals and objectives that reflect the demands of society;
2) development of public policy - making government decisions on the implementation of political policies in specific areas of society, with the determination of an effective combination of goals and means, and the choice of the optimal activity option.
At the same level public administration control influence is expressed in the organization of the process of putting into practice government decisions in the activities of civil servants.
In this case, the relationship between political and public administration can be schematically represented as follows (see Diagram 1).
Scheme 1. Correlation between political and
public administration (according to R. T. Mukhaev)
However, approaches that identify political management with public administration or with its significant component seem to be insufficiently constructive and modern.
Firstly, the processes of democratization of the political system and the activation of civil society throughout the world, and in Russia in particular, indicate that the state is increasingly losing its monopoly on the development and adoption of political decisions. Opposition political parties, pressure groups (lobbies), activists and civil society institutions are playing an increasingly significant role in shaping the political “agenda”. Thus, the composition of actors and institutions of political and managerial activity is not limited to the state (although its central role in the political system and political process remains).
Secondly, in modern political science the concept of “political management” is increasingly gaining “citizenship rights”, which is not a direct English-language analogue of the concept of “political management”, but reflects new, widely used management practices and technologies that do not rely on traditional resources of state power (normative, legal violence). These practices and technologies are actively included in the arsenal of political management, and today “political management” can be considered as a specific independent direction in political management, carried out by both state and non-state political institutions.
Therefore, the three-component structural model of political management proposed by V.D. seems more thorough and consistent with modern practice. Zimina and N.A. Borisov.
They propose to include three complementary elements in the structure of political management:
1. Management relations arising between government officials and bodies acting as the subject of management, on the one hand, and the population or its individual groups, on the other (public administration).
2. Managerial relations that develop within state and political organizations with the aim of streamlining their activities and increasing work efficiency.
3. Managerial relations in which the subject cannot rely on the right of legitimate violence and on his status resources to achieve political goals (political management).
Schematically, the structure of political governance in this case can be presented in the following form (see Diagram 2).
Scheme 2. Structure of political management
Salvador Dali Eyes of Time
A golden bridle will not turn a nag into a trotter.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Roman writer, Stoic philosopher.Ic.c.e.
It follows that no most perfect control system is capable of miracles. Buy a trotter; medicine for a nag will cost more.
Vladislav Mikshevich. Uralgeophysicist, 20th century.
Introduction.
1. Preface to control theory. Processes and signals. Types of signals. Cybernetic block. Cybernetic system.
2. Basic concepts of control theory. Management and control systems. The main elements of the management process. Control influence. Block diagram of the control system. The purpose of management. Control block. Main tasks of control theory. Active and passive systems. Subjects and objects of management. Control operation. Management methods. Control parameters. State space of the control object.
3. Classification of control systems. Management principles. Methods for classifying systems. Classification of systems by properties in steady state. Classification according to the nature of the operation of functional units. According to the degree of use of information. Classification by types of management. Classification according to functioning algorithms.
4. Organizational and economic management systems. Production, economic and organizational systems. Types of organizations. Functional structure of organizations. Managment structure. Adaptive organizational structures. Functioning of management structures. Managerial responsibility. Control circuits. Sociometric research.
Introduction
Control theory is a science that develops and studies methods and means of control systems and the patterns of processes occurring in them. The subject of management theory is not only the processes of material production, but also areas of human activity: organizational and administrative management, design and construction, information services, healthcare, scientific research, education, and many others. Control theory as a scientific direction developed in the 20th century on the basis of the theory of automatic control, which began to develop intensively in the 19th century due to the need for regulators that supported the stable operation of steam engines being introduced in industry and transport.
Modern control theory occupies one of the leading places in the technical sciences and at the same time belongs to one of the branches of applied mathematics, closely related to computer technology. Control theory based on mathematical models makes it possible to study dynamic processes in automatic systems, establish the structure and parameters of the system components to give the real control process the desired properties and specified quality. It is the foundation for special disciplines that solve problems of automation of control and monitoring of technological processes, design of tracking systems and regulators, automatic monitoring of production and the environment, creation of automatic machines and robotic systems.
The main objectives of control theory are analysis tasks dynamic properties of automatic systems at the model or physical level, and synthesis problems control algorithm, the functional structure of the automatic system that implements this algorithm, its parameters and characteristics that meet the requirements of quality and accuracy, as well as the task of automatic design of control systems, creation and testing of automatic systems.
The subject of this short course is the fundamentals of the theory of management of material objects and technological processes, the principles of organization, operation and design of technical and information management systems in material production. In modern conditions, the control of various technological and technical processes is carried out, as a rule, using computers, called control computers. The design of control systems that have a computer in their circuit is of a specific nature and is impossible without knowledge of the principles and methods of control theory.
Methods and means of control systems in the field of human activity are given only at the conceptual level for general orientation.
BASICS THEORIES MANAGEMENT
Topic 1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL THEORY
A golden bridle will not turn a nag into a trotter.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Roman writer, Stoic philosopher. 1st century AD
It follows that no most perfect control system is capable of miracles. Buy a trotter; medicine for a nag will cost more.
Vladislav Mikshevich. Ural geophysicist, 20th century.
Production, economic and organizational systems are complex systems. Objects and processes in these systems, as a rule, cannot be fully described mathematically. Functional dependencies contain both continuous and Boolean variables for the qualitative assessment of parameters or processes using a two-point system (YES and NO). When describing systems, probabilistic functions, weight systems, and expert assessments are used. The complexity of the mathematical description of production, economic and organizational systems stems from the fact that these are human-machine systems operating in difficult to predict situations. The behavior of systems is determined by a huge number of variables of different physical nature, and the relationships between them are extremely diverse. Changing a single connection or parameters of any element included in the system can lead to changes in all other connections and parameters or most of them.
The task of managing a complex system comes down to providing such functional transformations of parameters that would be optimal according to the selected criteria for the effectiveness of achieving the control goal. To simplify the mathematical description of complex systems, they are divided into subsystems based on the principle of hierarchy.
A characteristic feature of the problem of managing complex systems is the need for a systematic approach to management. It lies in the fact that the system should be considered as a single whole from the standpoint of the functioning goal common to all subsystems. In practice, this leads to the fact that independent optimization of the functioning of individual subsystems that form the system is unacceptable (does not make sense) from the standpoint of the particular goals of these subsystems. Given the known structure of a complex system, the goal of its operation is described by some scalar objective function W, which reaches an extreme value under optimal control.
The effectiveness of administrative and economic management is to a large extent determined by the qualifications and competence of the “team” of senior management, which is primarily manifested in the creation of organizational structures and management mechanisms that each “team” prefers to create “for itself.” This determines the variety of control systems with almost complete unpredictability of the final results. Each person in the management system, as well as each of his decisions on each specific issue, is either a destabilizing or stabilizing factor in management. Therefore, management assessment is usually purely subjective and is given not to the management system, but to its leaders: “good team” or “bad team.”
Types of organizations. There are two types of organizational processes – functioning and development. Functioning ensures the preservation of the organization based on the exchange of resources, energy, and information with the environment. Development involves the transformation of the organization in accordance with the requirements of the environment, the transition to a new qualitative state.
Organization is a structured community of people with common goals and common leadership. These are industrial enterprises, service organizations, state and municipal government structures, public organizations, etc. Organizations are divided into primary and secondary.
Primary organization has its own goals, has absolute permanent priority over the participants and provides them with resources. An example is any government agency (prosecutor's office, municipality, etc.).
Secondary organization is created by the participants themselves and serves their purposes. Among the secondary organizations, corporate and associative ones are distinguished. The corporate has priority over the participants to solve current problems (for example, a joint stock company). In an associative organization, relationships are partnerships (club, team of scientists at a seminar, etc.).
Legal status. The division of organizations into official and unofficial is related to their legal status. A formal organization can be viewed as a collection of positions interconnected by industrial relations. Informal organizations are formed by individuals, not positions. Such organizations include, for example, a population of Internet users or an organized criminal group.
Functional structure of organizations is based on combining activities by related groups (functions) and usually has the following elements:
A) Production divisions - main, auxiliary, service, experimental.
B) Management units - administrative, information, service, research, advisory (for example, a council of chief specialists of an enterprise).
C) Social units - canteen, club, recreation center, clinic.
Subdivision is an officially created group of workers that performs actions to achieve a set private goal. They use various principles for separating divisions of a company (enterprise):
Quantitative (as necessary to carry out this activity);
Temporary (to perform work for a certain period of time);
Technological (if necessary for servicing the technological process);
Professional (one profession to perform a given job).
Examples of departments are teams in a longshoremen's artel, shifts within a ship's crew, a workshop of an industrial enterprise, a department of a higher educational institution.
Managment structure , based on the allocation of fairly independent divisions, is called divisional (division - division, division). The following principles are used for creating divisions within the divisional structure:
A) market (meeting the needs of a certain group of customers);
B) territorial (satisfying needs in a certain territory);
C) commodity (satisfying customer needs for products and services);
D) innovative (development and production of new products and services).
The types of connections between enterprises included in a divisional organizational structure can be different. In a joint-stock holding, when the parent company owns controlling stakes in other firms, the ties are financial. In a joint-stock company with subsidiaries, technological ties are added to financial ties, and directly in a joint-stock company - also administrative ones.
Adaptive Organizational Structures - these are structures that quickly adapt to the requirements of the external and internal environment. Among them are usually project-based, matrix-based, program-targeted, and fragmentary.
Project is a group of activities aimed at solving a one-time problem. The advantages of project structures are high target orientation, specialization, and concentration of resources. Disadvantages - resource consolidation until work is completed, difficulty finding use for the released resources due to their uniqueness.
Matrix structure is a set of temporary working groups within an organization or division. Allows you to quickly maneuver resources and ensure high target orientation of work. Disadvantages - difficult to form and manage.
Program-target structure – a set of departments related to the implementation of targeted comprehensive programs. If work is carried out according to only one program, then the program-target structure is a type of project structure. If the work is an addition to the main activity, then it is a type of matrix structure.
Fragmented organizational structure – a set of autonomous and semi-autonomous units (teams, commissions, creative groups) working independently on unrelated problems of an innovative nature. An example is the implementation of fundamental research work within the framework of an academic research institute.
Functioning of management structures. Management structure is an ordered set of management subjects (divisions, positions) and connections between them.
The management structure is influenced by various factors. First of all, the scale and structure of the organization. Of great importance are the nature of the organization’s activities and the territorial location of divisions, the features of specialization of production, the technologies used, management costs, and the availability of people with the necessary qualifications.
Management level is a place in a hierarchical management system. At the highest level are the leaders of the organization. The lower level includes specialists who supervise performers and have immediate superiors (foremen, foremen).
Mid-level management specialists report to specialists at a higher level of the management hierarchy and themselves have lower-level specialists subordinate to them. The head of a workshop with several sections is a middle-level manager.
Controllability rate – the number of employees that a manager can effectively manage. At the highest level of management there are 3-5 people. On average – 10-12 people. At the lowest level – up to 25-30 people. The standard of control depends on the content of the work and affects the number of lower subdivisions and the number of further management levels.
The narrow specialization of work in an organization corresponds, as a rule, to a vertical multi-level organizational structure (head of the organization - head of department - head of department - executive). Broad specialization - horizontal (the head of the organization - specialists and performers).
Managerial responsibility - this is the need to give an account for decisions and actions, as well as for their consequences. They distinguish the general managerial responsibility that the manager bears for creating the necessary working conditions, and the functional responsibility of the performer for a specific result.
Work is carried out normally if the manager's responsibility is ensured by appropriate authority. If authority exceeds responsibility, the danger of administrative arbitrariness is great. If authority is less than responsibility, management is usually ineffective. The quantitative characteristics of managerial powers are the volumes of resources that he can dispose of without approval from a higher authority, and the number of persons directly or indirectly obliged to follow the decisions he makes.
Scope of powers , concentrated in one entity, depend, first of all, on the complexity, importance, variety of problems being solved, business dynamics and the size of the organization. The need to ensure unity of action, the costs associated with decision-making and the reliability of communication systems must be taken into account. The abilities of managers and performers, as well as the moral and psychological climate in the team, are important.
Centralization of powers means the primary concentration of powers at the highest levels of management. At the same time, the strategic direction of management is ensured. Decision making is concentrated in the hands of those who know the general situation well. However, there are also disadvantages. Centralization of authority requires a lot of time to transfer information through the hierarchical ladder, and the information can be distorted. Decisions are made by people who have little knowledge of the specific situation. Excessive centralization constrains the management process and makes it inflexible.
Decentralization of management - This is the primary concentration of powers at the lower levels of management. It provides flexibility and maneuverability of management, relieves the center from overloading with secondary problems, reduces information flows, and allows decisions to be made by people who know the specific situation well. But at the same time, it gives decisions a tactical (rather than strategic) nature, complicates the coordination of management activities, and can lead to ignoring the interests of the organization as a whole, to separatism and destruction of the organization.
Control circuits. Functional diagram management is based on the fact that the manager manages the main specialists (in production, finance, marketing, personnel), each of the main specialists manages each of the department heads, and they manage their performers. The advantage of the scheme is the high quality of solutions. The disadvantages are the possible lack of coordination of the decisions of the main specialists, their struggle for priority, which leads to high levels of conflict. The result may be general inefficiency.
Line-staff control scheme provides its own headquarters for each leader who participates in decision-making. Managers at different levels communicate with each other using information from their headquarters. The advantage is that managers are freed from analyzing problems and preparing draft solutions. Disadvantages include the continued overload of managers with current affairs. Managers at high management levels are disconnected from practice and do not participate in the implementation of their decisions.
In practice, two main ways of distributing powers are used: divided powers (the manager transfers powers to a subordinate, reserving overall control), absorbed powers (the manager, while transferring powers, at the same time fully retains them).
Sociometric research. In any company, in any enterprise, in addition to formal organizational structures, informal ones are created, based on relationships between people, which can significantly influence the results of work. They can be identified using sociometry. Sociometric technique is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations. With the help of sociometry, one can study the typology of social behavior of people in group activities and judge social and psychological compatibility.
Along with the official or formal structure of communication in any social group there is always a psychological structure of an unofficial or informal order, which is formed as a system of interpersonal relationships, likes and dislikes. The features of such a structure largely depend on the value orientations of the participants, their perception and understanding of each other, mutual assessments and self-esteem. The informal structure of a group depends on the formal structure to the extent that individuals subordinate their behavior to the goals and objectives of joint activity.
The general scheme of actions for sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives and selecting measurement objects, the main hypotheses and provisions regarding possible criteria for surveying group members are formulated. There cannot be complete anonymity here, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. The experimenter's demands to reveal their sympathies often cause internal difficulties among the respondents and manifest themselves in some people as reluctance to participate in the survey. Therefore, it is advisable to involve an outside specialized organization to conduct the research.
literature
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Copyright ©2008-2009 Davydov A.V.
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